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CHARLES WILLIAM WASON

COLLECTION

CHINA AND THE CHINESE

THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON GLASS OF 1876 1918

__ Cornell University Library

DS 706.R51

*■■ "■ii.'l^If!,'.?.,.',- Comprehensive geograph'

3 1924 023 165 370

Cornell University Library

The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023165370

L. RICHARD'S

COMPEBHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY

OF THE

CHINESE EMPIRE

AND

DEPENDENCIES

^ m i^ M

m>

Translated into English, revised and enlarged by

M. KENNELLY, S. J.

SHANGHAI

T'USEWEI PRESS

1908

All rights reserved.

TO

ALL THOSE

WHO TAKE INTEREST

IN THE PROGRESS, WELFARE AND PROSPERITY

OF CHINA

THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

PEEFACE.

Origin of this Work. — Richard's "Geogmphie de V Empire de. Chine" published in 1905, by the T'usewei Press, Shanghai, was so appreciated in the East and at home, that an English Edition of the w^ork M^as immediately requested. The Chinese Legation in London, Officials, Railway-prospectors, Merchants, Travellers, Missionaries, and all who take a special interest in China and Things Chinese, have at various times urged the necessity of the work, and augured that it would be of valuable service to the Public. The Translation, undertaken and carried out amidst the drudgery of class-work w^ith Chinese pupils, remote from English surroundings, and w^ithout the assistance of the valuable home libraries, w^as unavoidably slow. As the w^ork proceeded, it w^as remarked that the various reforms adopted by China, the new status of the Maur churian Provinces, and the progress of events in the Far East w^ould require some recasting of the original. The ne-w part has not been throw^n into the shape of additional notes, but has been w^elded into the old paragraphs, w^ith as little distur- bance as possible of the order of the original. The present English Edition is thus enlarged and revised, bringing all infor- mation, administrative, statistical and economic, thoroughly up to-date.

Plan of the Work. — This Work given a Physical and Political description of China and Dependencies. The Physical part groups all facts around the 3 natural Regions or Great Basins of China: 1°. the Northern, around the Yellow^ River; 2°. the Central, around the Yangtze-kiang; and 3*. the Southern, around the Si-kiang or West River. A general outline of each region precedes the description of the Provinces. Each Province is the object of a particular study, in which its area, population and boundaries, its aspect and characteristics, its mountains and rivers, its geology, its fauna and flora, its climate, its agricultured and mineral resources, its people, race and language, its principal towns, its industry and commerce, its land-routes and w^aterways are minutely and methodically exposed.

77ic Coast-line, -which extends along 6 Provinces of the Empire : Chihli, Shantung, Kiangsu, Ch^kiang, Fokien and Kwangtiing, is treated in a special chapter. This has the advantage of combining in a general study important notions

II PREFACE.

bearing on winds, currents and tides, which could not be easily connected with the study of each individual Province. The description of the coast-line proceeds from North to South, and follows the above mentioned order of the Provinces. For fuller details, the Reader is referred to the Index at the end of this work.

The Political part describes the Government and Adminis- tration, the various Religions, the Army and Navy, the Educational system, Agriculture, Industry and Mining, the Railway, Postal and Telegraph departments. In view of the grow^ing intercourse with other countries, and the expansion of Foreign Trade, the chapter on this subject will be found specially useful, and no pains have been spared to enhance its value by full statistical tables. Appendix II (at the close of the volume) embodies the latest Returns for the year 1906.

A brief account of the Rise and Progress of the Empire, and of its International Relations, is appended to this part. It is not a dry story of kings and wars, but is intended to shovv^ the development of the Nation, in its manifestations good as well as evil. It will also afford a deep insight into the national mind and life, so essential for the proper understanding of Things Chinese. The collection of dates cannot fail to be of service to all Readers, a-nd must be correlated with events and facts described in. the Physical part of the w^ork.

Each chapter is foUow^ed by a library of references, and a list of standard Authors (French, English, German), many of whom are household words in connection with Chinese history, literature and scholarly attainments. To all, the Translator is much indebted for valuable information, and begs hereby to tender acknowledgement.

A full list of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports, in the 18 Provinces and outlying Dependencies, complete the virork. Every proper name, romanised in English, is followed by its equivalent Chinese pictograph, a novel and valuable improvement which will help to avoid confusion in words so similar in sound.

The Index has been carefully prepared with the twofold purpose of securing completeness, and rendering research expe- ditious. The names of Authors and the titles of books are printed in italics, while figures in heavy type indicate the parti- cular place where a subject is principal^ treated.

China is at present making every eifort to take her place in the comity of Nations. Her Administration and Army are being re-organized, Schools are multiplied, Railways are opened, Postal work is improved, the opium evil is to be suppressed, and a Constitutional Government is promised to the Country in the near future. Other improvements, in Finance, in Law, in National unity, will follow in due time. This awakening and

PREFACE.

re-shaping of the country cannot but interest the Great Nations of the "world. Richard's Comprehensive Geogranhy will help much to make China and the Chinese people better known. Should it also promote mutual friendship between East and West, it \vill have fulfilled a great need, and we hope be ■wrelcomed by all classes of Readers.

Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received by the Translator, who expresses his many obligations to his friends for their valuable assistance and encouragement in the completion of this "work.

M. Kennelly, S.J.

Sicawei College, Shanghai 18 December, 1907.

SYSTEM OF OBTHOG-EAPHY.

In the tranaliteration of Chinese praper names, the JVan- king kwamikwa or Nan kwanhwa, '^ 1^ f^ (Southern mandarin dialect) has been adopted preferably to the Pekingese, spoken only at the Capital and in a small portion of Chihli and Ho- nan Provinces. The Nankingese discriminates between the initials si and hsi (as in jg sin, a letter, a note; and ^ hsing, to go), tsi and hi (as in ^ tsi, to aid; and fg ki, to re- member), which are so bewilderlngly confused in the Pekingese. The Nankingese is spoken by two-thirds of the whole population of the Empire, and is everywhere understood. Its syllabary is richer than the Pekingese, its pronunciation purer (j£ -^ chfing yin, correct or standard pronunciation, as the Chinese say) and better, and being now largely adopted by the Postal and Tele- graph Administrations of China, it is most likely to outlive its competitors.

In the working out of details, familiar spellings are main- tained, as Peking, Foochow, Amoy, Canton, Chefoo, Soochow, Fokien, Kansu etc. The vowels have their Italian or fixed sounds. The aspirates, a most essential element of the Chinese language, are indicated by an inverted comma (thus '), and the short abrupt final vowels by the addition of h (as in ^ teh, to attain). In all instances, the same sound is ever represented by the same phonetical equivalents. The initials si and hsi, ts, tsi, h and ch, six and hsiX have been carefully distinguished. The compound consonants : hw, hw, Iw, sw, shw, sz, ts and tz, recently adopted by the Postal Service, have been admitted and followed. The initial nasal ng, followed by a or e, is maintained, as its omission is considered unscientific and based on mere convention-. The final nasals an and en; ang and eng, ung and Sng, uan and iXen, so generally confounded by English writers have been represented by more exact phonetic equivalents. In

SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

the alphabetical list, the aspirated characters follow immediately the unasp4rated, and these latter are followed in turn by those of the short abrupt final vowel sounds. Throughout the work, every proper name, romanised in English, has beside it its equivalent Chinese character or pictograph, a valuable improve- ment, which will help to avoid confusion especially in words which are similar in sound.

i

It is thus hoped that this system, which embodies the best elements of Morrison, Williams, Wade, Giles and of the recent Postal List, will meet with the approval of all competent Sino- logues, and go far in solving the yet unsettled question of uni- formity, at least so far as the English language is concerned. M'' H. B. Morse, the learned Statistical Secretary of the Imperial Maritime Customs, to whom the work has been communicated as the sheets left the press, appreciated its system of ortho- graphy in the following terms : "as scientific romanisalion, I fully approve of your system, and I have serious fault only with your ngan." (Letter to th« Author, 13 August, 19"07).

\1

Values of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, aspirates and nasals, adopted in this Work.

The Mandarin dialect lacks the initial letters b, d, g, q, r, v, x and z ; and all words end by a vowel, semi- vowel, n or ng.

Vowels and diphthongs.

a.

ai.

ao.

eh.

eul. —

as in father.

as in aye.

(final) as ow in how, but

prolonged, as in men, yet- as the vowel sound in

earth. short and abrupt, as in height, or i in sigh (many English writers confound ai and ei). as ou in souse (some

write it ou or ow). as II in hull or skull, with an approxima- tion to rl, as in hurl. (English and American writers have trans- literated this sound in the most bewilder- ing manner, thus : urh (Morrison). 'rh (Williams). Srh (Wade, Giles). dr (Jenkings). rh (Edkins). ri (Ballard).

I.

ia.

iao.

le.

ieh. ih.

ing.

io.

ioh.

iu.

o.

oh.

ow.

u.

U.

uh.

ui.

as in pin.

as ya in yard.

i and ao sounded, but

slightly coalescing

into one sound, as in the Italian word

siesfa. shorter than ie. short and abrupt, as the

vowel sound in chich. as the vowel sound in

chin, pin. as in king, sing, i as y in yawn. short and abrupt, as ew, in pew, yew. as 0 in long. short and abrupt, as ow in how (see eu). as 00 in too, fool. as u in abuse, short and abrupt, u as in too; i as in

height, both slightly

coalescing into one.

Consonants, aspirates and nasals.

The aspirate is about the same sound as initial h in English, but often somewhat stronger. In English, the aspirate after a surd is a neglected sound, while in Chinese it is a substitute for the lack of the sonants b, d, g hard and g soft. The Mandarin dialect has 9 aspirates : the initial simple consonants k, p and t, and the compound consonants oh, chw, kw, shw, ts and tz.

A nasal sound is performed by closing the lips and causing the voice to pass into the nose.

ch. —

ch'. — chw. —

f- — h. — hs. —

hw. —

k. — k'. —

I.

m.

n.

P-

V-

(always initial) as in church, chair.

the same sound aspirated

as in chew.

as in fat, find.

as in hang.

(always initial), a sibil- ant sound as sh in shin, she.

as wh in what, which.

as in tlie French jaune, jamais.

as in king.

the same sound aspir- ated (in some places softened).

as in lamp, land.

as in man.

as in not.

as in pot.

the same sound aspir- ated.

s. — as in sand.

sh. — as in shall, shut.

sz. — a peculiar sibilant, as if followed by a quies- cent vowel.

sze. — an imperfect vowel so- und; e final as in table (Wade renders this sound by ssH, Wil- liams by sz').

t. — as in top.

t' . — the same sound aspir- ated.

ts. — as in wits.

ts' . — the same sound aspir- ated.

tze. — an imperfect vowel so- und; e final as in table (Wade and Giles ren- der this sound by tzu; Williams by tsz').

w. — as in went, winter.

=*Se««!

CONTENTS.

INTROD-UCTION, 1-6.

Geography. Formation of the Earth. Modifications of the crust of the Earth. Formation of new lands, 1. — Igneous and sedimentary rocks. Formation of the soil of China, 2. — China in the various geological periods. Formation of coal and sandstone. Modifications wrought on the surface, ^'olcanic action and eruptions. Present geological action. Pre- dominant rocks of the Chinese soli. New modifications wrought on the surface of China, 3. — Flora and Fauna of the first ages. Primitive origin of the Chinese. Pre-Chinese races. First Chinese Settlers, 4. — Actual China. Situation. Divisions. Boundaries. Area and Population. Reasons of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. Difficulty of a collective view. Study of the 18 Provinces, 5. — References, 6.

BOOK 1.

CHINA PROPER

or The Eighteen Provinces.

Genera) Notions, 7-20.

Names applied to the Country and People. Situation. Boundaries, 7. — Shape. Area and Population, 8. — Geological constitution. Orography or Mountain Systems, 10. — Historical or Sacred Mountains. Plains, 13. — Climate, 14. — Hydrography, 15. — Lakes. Coast-line. Fauna and Flora, 16. — Diffusion of the Population, 18. — Present Division of China. The Three Regions or Basins, 19. — References, 20.

SECTION I. — THE NORTHERN REGION, 21-89. CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Peh-ho and of Uie Hwaiiff-ho, 21-30.

Characteristics of this Region, 21. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Loess or Yellow lands, 22. — Alluvial lands. Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 23. — The Hwang-ho, 24. — X'ariations in its Course, 27. — Flow, 28. — The Great Wall, 29. — A few other particulars concerning the Northern Region, 29. — References, 30.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Hwang-ho (Kansu and Shensi), 31-46.

Kansu and Shensi Provinces, 31. — 1". Kansu: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 32. —Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 33. — Climate. Hydrography, 35. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People).

CONTENTS. IX

Language, 36. — Cities and Principal Centres, 37. — Industry and Com- merce. Highways of communication, 38. — 2". Sheiisi : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Charac- teristics, 39. — Geological constilTition. Orography, 40. — Climate. Hydrography, 41. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral VV^ealth. Population (People). Language, 42. — Cities and Principal Centres, 43.

— Industry and Commerce, 44. — Highways of communication, 45. — References, 46-.

CHAPTER III.

Reg'ion of the Jliddte Hwaug-ho (Shansi and Honan), 47-04.

Sha'nsi and Shensi Provinces, 47. — 1°. Shausi: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, Capital. Other Prefectures, 48. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. -Orography, 50. — Climate. Hydrography, 51. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 52. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 54. — 2°, Houaii : Area. Population. Xame. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, Aspect and Characteristics, 56. — Gealogical constitution. Orography, 57. — Hydrography, 59. — Faujia and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Laagaoiage . Cities and Principal Centres, 61. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 62. — References, 63.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of the Lower Hwang--ho and of the Peh-ho (ehiWi and Shantung), 65-89.

Chihli and Shantung Pfovinces, 65. — 1°. Chihii : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capitals. Other Prefectures, 66. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 67. — Climate. Hydrography, 69. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 70. — Population (People). Cities and Principal Centres, 71. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 78. — 2°. Shantung : Area. Population. Xame. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 79. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 80. — Climate. Hydrography, 82. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral \Vealth. Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 83. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 86. — Open Ports. Notes, 87.

— References, 8»-89-.

SECTION II. —THE CENTRAL REGION, 90-166.

CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 90-103.

Characteristics of this Region, 90. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution, 91. — Orography, 92. — Climate. Hyd'rography . The Yang- tze River (name, course, changes of, distance of Ports on from sea- coast. Navigation of, Steamboat Companies trading on), 93. — Further particulars regarding this Central Region, 101, — References, 102-103.

CHAPTER II.

Region of (lie Ippei' Yangtze (Szechw'an), 104-H9.

Szechw'an Pro\ince, 104. — Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 105. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological

X CONTENTS.

constitution, 106. — Orography, 107. — Climate. Hydrography, 109. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 111. — Population {People, Races). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 112. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 116. — Open Ports. Notes, 117. — References, 118.

CHAPTER III.

Resion of the Middle Yangtze (Hupeh and Hunan), 120-138.

Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, 120. — 1°. Hupeh : Area, Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 121. — Geological constitution. Orography, 122. — Climate. Hydrography, 123. — Lakes. Fauna and Flora, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 124. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 125. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 129. — Open Ports. 130. — 2°. Hmian : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 131. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 132. — Hydrography, 133. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 134. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 135. — Industry and Commerce, 136. — Highways of communication. Open Ports', 137. — References, 138.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of the Lower Yangtze (Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu), 139-166.

Kiangsi, Nganhwei and Kiangsu Provinces, 139. — 1°. Kiangsi : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 140. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 141. — Hydro- graphy, 142. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 142. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 143. — Industry and Commerce, 145. — Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note. References, 145. — 2°. Nganhwei : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 146. — Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 147. — Hydrography. Lakes, 148. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 149. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 150. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 151. — Open Ports, 152. — 3". Kiangsu : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 153. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 154. — Hydrography, 155. — Fauna and Flora, 156. — Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language. 157. — Cities and Principal Centres, 158. — Industry and Commerce, Highways of communication, 163.

— Open Ports. Notes, 164. — References, 165-166.

SECTION III. — THE SOUTHERN REGION, 167-237.

CHAPTER I.

Tlie Si-kiang Valley and the Coast-rivers of Fokien and Ch6kiang, 167-173.

Characteristics of this Region, 167. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological constitution. Orography, 168. — Climate. Hydrography, 170.

— References, 173.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Si-kiang (Yiinnan and Kweiehow), 174-193.

Yiinnan and Kweiehow Provinces, 174. — 1°. YUnnan : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 175. — Aspect and Charac-

CONTENTS. XI

teristics. Geological constitution, 177, — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 178. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 180. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal centres, 181. — Industry and Commerce, 182. — Open Ports. Note, 183. — 2°. Kweichow : Area. Population. Xame. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 184. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 185. — Climate. Hydrography, 187. — .Vgricultural and Mineral Wealth, 187. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 188. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 190. — Note. References, 191- 193.

CHAPTER III.

Roaion of the Middle and Lowei' Si-kiang- (Kwangsi

and Kwangtung), 194-216.

Kwangsi and Kwangtung Provinces, 194. — 1°. Kwangsi : Area. Popula- tion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 195. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. CJrography. Climate. Hydrography, 196. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 198. — Popula- tion (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 199. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 200. — Note, 201. — 2°. Kwangtung : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 202. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 203. — Climate. Hydrography, 204. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 206. — Population (People). Language. Towns and Principal Centres, 207. — Note (Hongkong, Macao, Kwang- chow-wan). Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 211. — Open Ports, 212. — References, 213-216.

CHAPTER IV.

The Coast Region (Fokien and Chekiang), 217-237.

Fokien and Chekiang Provinces, 217. — 1°, Fokien : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 218. — Aspect and Charac- teristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 219. — Hydrography, 220. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral ^Vealth, 221. — Popu- lation (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 222. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 225. — Open Ports. Note, 226. — 2°. Chekiang : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 227. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 228. — Climate'. Hydrography, 229. — Fauna and Flora. Agri- cultural and Mineral Wealth, 231. — Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 232. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note, 235. — References, 236-237.

SECTION IV. —THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA, 238-294.

Preliminary observation, 238. — 1°. (General Notions: Extent of the coast- line. Its configuration. Seas, 239. — General remarks on the seas of China (the Yellow Sea, Eastern China Sea, South-China Sea), 241. — Nature of the coast, 242. — Coast winds. Winter and Summer Monsoons, 243. — Cyclones. Continental landstorms. Typhoons, 245. — Fogs. Lighthouses, buoys and beacons, 246. — Tides, 249. — 2". The Coast of Chihli : The Poh-hai. Gulfs. Islands. Ice, 251, — Winds. Nature of the Coast. Ports, 252. — 3°. The Coast of Shantung: A. The N. W. Coast, B. The Miao-tao Islands, 253. — C. The Coast of the Shantung Promontory. Bays. Capes, 254. — Islands. Ice. Wind. I'ide. Nature of Coast. Lighthouses, 255. — Coast-towns (Chefoo, Weihaiwci, Ts'ingtao), 256. — 4°. Tlie Coast of Kiang- su : A. The Coast to the N. of the Yangtze. 15. The mouth of the Yangtze

III

XII CONTENTS.

and the Port of Shanghai, 261. — Islands and sand-banks. Channels, 262.

— Lighthouses. Tides, 263. — Woosung Inner and Outer Bars, 264. — Height of water on Woosung Bars, 265. — Shanghai (Historical sketch. Population. Industries and Manufactures. Trade, Shipping and Tonnage. Table of Shipping. Inland Navigation), 266. — C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze, 271. — 5°. The Coast of Chekiang- : 1°. Bay of Hangchow and its barrier of Islands, 272. — Lighthouses. 2°. Coast of Chekiang, S. of Hang- chow Bay, 273. — Bays, 274. — Islands. Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 275.

— 6°. The Coast, ol' Fokien : Bays. Islands, 276. — Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 278. — 7°. The CoasI of Kwangtung-: Bays. Islands, 281. — Tides. Currents. Lighthouses, 283. — Sea-ports (Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Kwangchow-

" wan), 284. — Time-zones on the Coast of China. Note, 292. — References, 293-294.

SECTION v. — POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY,

295-485.

CHAPTER I.

Government and Administration. — Revenue and Expenditure. — Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy, 295-338.

1°. Government and Administration: The Emperor, 295. — The Empress. Manchu Administration, 296. — Central Government, 297. — Provincial Administration, 301. — Provinces of China and their Capitals, 304. — Territorial Sub-divisions of the Provinces, 306. — Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces, 312. — General appellation of Officials. The Yamen, 313. — Rank and degrees of Officials. Hereditary reward for Merit, 314. — 2°. Revenue and Expenditure : Chinese Currency, 316. Cash. Sycee. Various kinds of Taels, 317. — Gold equivalent of Haikwan Tael (1870-1906), 319. — Necessity of uniform Currency. 320. — Revenue of the Empire. Taxes (land-tax, salt-tax, likin, native Custom dues, opium-tax, miscellaneous), 321. — Expenditure of the Empire. Foreign Debt, 324. — 3°. Imperial Maritime Customs: Origin and development. Organization, 325.

— Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326. — Revenue collected by I. M. Customs, 327. — Apportionment of Revenue between Foreign and Home Trade. Ports where trade is most important, 328. — 4°. Army and Navy: Manchu or Imperial Army (The Eight Banners), 329. — Provincial Forces or Army of the Green Standard, 330. — Irregulars or Braves. The New Chinese Army scheme, 331. — Reorganization of the Army, 332. — Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904. Navy, 333, — Arsenals and dockyards. Ports, 334. — References, 335-338. "

CHAPTER II.

Population (People). — Lang'uages. — Kelig'ions. — Education, 339-392.

1°. Population (People), 339. — Physical and moral characteristics of the Chi- nese Race, 340. — Aboriginal tribes and remnants of formerRaces; Lolos,342.

— Miaotze, Ikias, Hakkas, 343. — Hoklos. Yao or Yu tribe. Sai, Si or Li tribe, 344. — Mosus (Musus), Lisus. Minkias. Sifans. Distribution of the Population, 345. — Foreign (Commercial) Population in China, 346. — 2°. Languag-es : The Chinese Language, 347. — Mandarin. \"arieties of Mandarin. Dialects (number of persons conversing in each), 348. — Charac- teristics of the Chinese Language. Chinese writing, 349. — Dialects and writing of the Aborigines. Chinese Literature, 350. — 3°. Uelig-ions: Confucianism. Taoism, 351. — Buddhism, 352. — Ancestor worship. Shamanism, 353. — Catholicism. Catholic Missions in China, 354. — Protestantism, 358. — Pro- testant Missions to China, 359. — Mahomedanism, 362. — Judaism, 363. —

CONTENTS. XIII

4°. Education: Old System of Education, 364. — Competitive examinations and degrees, 365. — Modern System of Education, 367. — Grades of Schools and Degrees in new System, 368. — Normal and Special Schools. Admi- nistration of the Schools. Private and Mission Schools, 369. — Old Style military examinations. References, 370-392.

CHAPTER III.

Agriculture, 393-401.

Chinese Agriculture, 393. — Methods. Distribution of Crops. Various agricultural products, 394. — Plants cultivated for food, utilized in industry, 395. — Tea. The Poppy-plant, 39G. — The sugar-cane. The cotton plant. Useful trees, 397. — The Bamboo. Fruit-trees. Domestic animals. Pisciculture and fishing, 398. — References, 399-401.

CHAPTER IV.

Mining' and Industry, 402-406.

Jlining- : Coalmines. Iron ore. Copper, 402. — Zinc. Tin. Quicksilver. Gold. Silver. Argentiferous lead mines. Kerosene. Salt. Mining regulations. Industry: 403. — Porcelain. Silk. Silk-filatures. Cotton-spinning and wea- ving mills. Sugar refineries. Arsenals. Mints. Printing establishments, 404. — References, 405-406.

CHAPTER V.

Trade and Commerce, 407-424.

Home Trade, 407. — Trade with the outlying Dependencies. Foreign Trade. Its Importance, 408. — Annual value of China's Foreign Trade (1891-1905). Principal Foreign Countries with which China trades. Annual value of the Direct Trade with each country (1903-1905), 409. — Principal Imports from Foreign Countries, 411. — Principal Exports to Foreign Countries, 412. — Principal Re-exports. Value and Importance of the principal articles of Trade (cotton piece-goods and yarn), 413. — Sorts of Opium imported. Xet Importation into the Principal Ports, 414. — Principal Exports from China : Silk and Tea. Sorts of silk exported. Total Export of silk for the past 10 years, 415. — Sorts of Tea exported. Total Export of Tea for the last 10 years, 416. — Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign Countries. Principal Marts for export of Tea, 417. — Share taken by each Foreign Country in China's Trade. Shipping. Carrying trade between the Treaty Ports, 418. — Trade of Shanghai (1903-1905), 419. — Traders and Trading Houses in China. Trade and population of the Open Ports (1903- 1905), 420. — References, 422-424.

CHAPTER VI.

Means of Communication, 425-442.

Roads and Bridges, 425. — Government Courier Roads, 426. — Modes of conveyance and travel. Waterways, 427. — Canals. The Grand Canal, 428. — Railways, 430. — Railway lines completed and working (1907), 431. — Under construction, 433. — Projected, 434. — Postal Service, 435. — Present Tariff : Imperial Post Office, 436. — Postal Sections and Work, 437. — Telegraphs, 438. — Steamship Companies trading to and from China, 439. — References, 441-442.

CHAPTER VII.

Rise and Prosyress of tlie Cliinese Empire. — Foreig'n Relations. — Cliinese Emigration, 443-485.

1°. Rise and Progress of the Chinese Empire. /". The Mythical Period, 443. — 11°. The Ancient or Legendary Period : 1°. The Five Sovereigns.

XIV CONTENTS.

2°. The Three great Emperors (Yao, Shun, Yu),445. — III". The SS Dy- nasties : i". The Primitive Dynasties, 445. — The Chinese Imperial Dy- nasties, Table of, 446. — The Hsia dynasty. The Shang or Yin dynasty, 448. — The Chow dynasty, 449. — 2°. The Ancient Dynasties : The Ts'in dynasty, 450. — The Han dynasty, 451. — The Minor Han. The Tsin dynasty, 453. — The Liusung dynasty. The Three Short-lived dynasties, 454.-3°. The Mediseval dynasties, 455. — The T'ang dynasty, 456.— The Five Ephemeral dynasties. The Sung dyna.sty, 457. — The Yilen or Mongol dynasty, 459, — 4°. The Modern dynasties : The Ming dynasty, 460. — The Tats'ing dynasty, 461-471. — IP. Foroig-n Relations, 471. — Famous Travellers to and from China, 472, — Intercourse of "Western Powers with China from the XVI'i' century to 1842, p. 473. — Relations of China with Foreign Powers from 1842 (Treaty of Nanking), 475. — III". Emigration (Chinese abroad), 478. — References, 479-485.

BOOK II.

OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTER I.

Manchuria or the Manclui Country, 486-508.

Note. Area. Population. Name, 486. — Boundaries, Capital. Provinces and Prefectural divisions, 487. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 488. — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 489. — Lakes. Coast-line, 491. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral "Wealth, 492. — Population (People), 493. — Language. Religion. Towns and Principal Centres, 494. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of commu- nication, 501. — Railways in Manchuria, 503. — The Palisade. Adminis- tration, 504. — Open Ports, 505. — Historical sketch, 506. — References 507-508.

CHAPTER II.

Mong'olia or the Mongku Country, 500-522.

Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 509. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution, 510. — Orography and Hydrography. Region of Kobdo and Urga, 511. — Region of the Mongolian Desert or Gobi, 512. — Region of the Great Khingan (Hsingnan). Ordos Plateau Region, 513. — Alashan Region. Climate, 514, — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People), 515. — Religion. Language, 516. — Towns and Principal Centres, 517. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 519. — Postal sei-vice (Russian overland). Administra- tion, 519. — Army. References, 520-522.

CHAPTER III.

Cliinese Tiirkeslan or tlie T^e.w Dominion, also called Sinkian^, 52.'{-537.

Area. Population. Name, Boundaries, 523. — Prefectural divisions. Aspect and Characteristics, 524. — Geological constitution. Orography, 525. — Depressions. Passes. Climate, 526. — Hydrography, 527. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 528. — The different Regions and their Towns, 529. — Population (People). Religion. Language. Admi- nistration, 533. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication 534. — Historical Note. References, 535-537,

CONTENTS . XY

CHAPTER IV.

Tibet or Sitsang-, 538-557.

Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 538. — Aspect. Geological consti- tution. Orography, 539. — Climate, 541. — Hydrography, 542. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 545. — Government and Administrative divisions: Kingdom of Tibet, 545.— Kuku-Nor. Population (People and Races). Religion, 547. — Language, 548. — Taxation, tribute and currency. Army. Towns and Principal Centres, 549. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 553. — Postal communication. Open Trade-marts. Historical Note. Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. British Expe- dition to Lhasa, 554. — References, 555-557.

List of the Prefectures and Sub-prefectures (Departments aud Districts) in the 18 Provinces, arranged under their respective Provinces and supple- mented by the Indendancies administered by a Taot'ai), 558-581.

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures of Manchuria and Chinese Turkestan, 582-585.

Alphabetical List of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports of China and Dependencies, 586-639.

Appendix I. Signification of the Principal Chinese Geographical Terms, 640.

II. China's Foreign Trade in 1906, p. 645.

III. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China for the year ending,

1905, p. 657. ,, I\'. The "Woosung Bar, Hwaagp'u Conservancy and Approaches

to Shanghai, 659. ,, y. Work and Progi-ess of the Imperial Post Office in 1906, p

661. Index (alphabetically arranged), 663. Corrigenda, 712.

LIST OF MAPS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

In Text.

Fig. Po-ge

1. Sketch-plan illustrating Formation of the Soil of China 2

2. Geological Map of Northern China according to Richthofen,

Pumpelly and A. David 9

3. Rough sketch-plan of the Upper Hwang-ho 24

4. Sketch-plan showing changes in the course of the Hwang-ho. ... 28

5. Section of the Richthofen M" at their Southernmost Pass. ... 34 G. Loess Plateau of Shansi according to Richthofen 49

7. Section of the Mountains of Western Honan, proceeding from

Hwaik'ing Fu to Nanyang Fu, 58

8. Map of Northern Chihli and Approaches to Peking 68

9. Plan of Peking, with Index 72

10. Sketch-map of T'ientsin 76

11. Geological Map of Shantung according to Richthofen 81

12. Sketch-plan, Port of Ts'ingtao •. 85

13. Section of the Mountains from Tatsienlu to the Min River Plain. 108

14. Sketch-plan of Ch'ungk'ing 115

15. Wuch'ang, Hanyang and Hank'ow 126

16. Sketch-plan of Shanghai, with Inset of P'ootung 161

17. Geological sketch-map of the Chinese Provinces bordering on

Tongking, by M. A. Leclere 169

18. Approaches to Canton 171

19. Section of Yunnan and Kwangsi Plateaux 176

20. Sketch-plan of Canton and the Pearl River 208

21. Sketch-plan of Koochow and the Min River 220

22. Sketch-plan of .\moy Harbour 224

23. Section of the PaciBc Ocean along the 20"' parallel, N. Lat. ... 240

24. Diagram illustrating the Winter and Summer Monsoons. ... 244

25. Lighthouses on the N. Coast of China 247

26. Lighthouses on the S. Coast of China. ... , 248

27. Sketch-plan of the Lower Peh-ho and its Mouth 250

28. Sketch-plan of Chefoo Bay 256

29. Sketch-plan of Weihaiwei Harbour 257

30. Sketch-plan of Kiaochow Bay 259

31. Diagram showing swirl at mouth of Yangtze at flood and ebb

tides 264

32. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 264

33 Diagram showing Height of water on the Outer and Inner

Woosung Bars (1897-1902) 265

34. Sketch-plan of Samsa (Sansha) Bay 277

35. Sketch-plan of Hongkong including Kowloon and New Territory. 284

36. Sketch-plan of Macao with Dependencies of Taipa and Colowan. 288

37. Sketch-plan of Kwangchow-wan 290

38. Railway system of Manchuria 502

39. Section of Asia, following Meridian of Lob-Nor and Turfan. ... 540

40. Sketch-map of Southern Tibet 542

41. Height of Water on the Outer and Inner Woosung Bars (1902-

1906) 659

42. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 660

In Pocket.

1. Large Map of the 18 Provinces, in 7 colours (27 x 21 inches).

2. Physical and Political Map of China and Dependencies, in 5 colours

(15 X 10 ii inches).

3. Map of the Hupeh Plain, in 5 colours (9 i x 8 inches).

4. Map of the Lower Yangtze Basin, in 5 colours (9-4x8 inches).

LIST.

OF STATISTICAI, lABLES.

1. Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 5

2. Area and Population of the 18 Provinces 8

3. Distance (nautical miles) of Yangtze Ports from Shanghai. ... 101

4. Hank'ow shipping Table 128

5. Foreign Population of Shanghai 207

6. Gross and Net A'alues of the Shanghai Trade (1900-1905) 269

7. Custom Dues collected at Shanghai (1900-1905) 269

8. Share of Dues contributed by G. Britain, Germany etc 269

9. Shanghai shipping Table (1900-1905) 271

10. Gross and Xet Values of the Canton Trade (1900-1905) 287

11. Total Value of junk trade between Hongkong and Macao (1900-

1905) 289

12. The 10 Ministries or Metropolitan Boards. 299

13. The 8 Viceroyalties 302

14. Provinces of China and their Capitals 304

15. Provincial Government 305

16. Territorial sub-divisions of the Provinces 306

17. Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces 312

18. Insignia of Official Rank 314

19. The 9 Ranks of hereditary reward for Merit 315

20. Table exhibiting the sub-divisions of the Tael 316

21. Gold equivalent of the Haikwan Tael (1870-1906) 319

22. Revenue of the Chinese Empire 321

23. Expenditure of the Chinese Empire 324

24. Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade 326

25. Customs Revenue (1900-1905) 327

26. Share of Duties paid by Foreign and by Home Trades 328

27. Ports where Trade is most important 328

28. Banner Garrisons in the Provinces 329

29. Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904 333

30. Table showing increase of Chinese Population 346

31. Foreign Trading Houses and Traders in China 346,420,654

32. Population speaking Dialects of the East and South of China. ... 348

33. Number of Syllables in the various Dialects of China 348

34. Statistics of Catholic Missions in China, 1906 356

35. ,, ,, ,, ,, in Korea and Japan, 1906 358

36. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China 359-360; 657-658

37. M. A. Graduates in each Province, 1903 366

38. L.L.D. Graduates in each Province, 1904 367

39. Grades of Schools (New System) 368

40. Degrees conferred in New System 368

41. Annual A'alue of China's Foreign Trade, 1891-1905-1906. ... 409,645

42. Annual Value of direct trade with each Country, 1903-1905-1906. 409,645

43. Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906. 410,647

44. Principal Net Exports to Foreign Couniries, 1903-1905-1906. 412,648

45. Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905-1906 413,649

46. Importation of Cotton piece-goods and yarn 413,649

47. Importation of Cotton yarn 414,649

48. Opium imported 414,650

49. Silk exported for the past 10 years 415,651

50. Tea exported for the past 10 years 416,651

LIST OF STATISTICAL TABLES.

51. 52. 53.

54. 55.

56. 57.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign Countries, 1905-1906..,. 417,652 Shipping: Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1905-1906. ... 418,653 Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1904-1905-1906. 418,653

Shanghai, Gross and Xet Value of its Trade, 1903-1905 419

Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Open Port, 1905-

1906 420,654

Governnaent Courier Roads or Postal Highways 426

Railway Lines, completed and working, 1907 431,432

,, ,, under construction, 1907 433

projected, 1907 434

Postal Tariff; Imperial Post Office, 1907 436

Head and Branch Offices, Imperial Post Office, 1901-1905-1906. 437,661

Postal Sections and %Vork, 1904-1905-1906 437,661

Telegraph Cables in China 438

Steamship Companies sailing to or from China 439

Coast and Riverine S. S. Companies 440

Imperial Dynasties of China 446

Emigration Statistics 478

Newchwang : Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906 499

GEOGRAPHY

OF

THE CHINESE EMPIRE.

INTRODUCTION.

Geography. — Geography is nothing else than a description of the earth,

The Geography of China will consist therefore in describing that part of Asia ;h is called China.

Bat the description of the earth cannot be made without some preliminary )us of geology, that is to say, of the science of the earth, its formation, its cons- ion and its various modifications. By means of this study we can give a readier lint of the surface, of the distribution of (the waters, and also of the fauna and of China.

Fornintion of the earth. — The whole universe has been, in its elements, bed b;- God, that is to say made from nothing by His Almighty Power.

According to the hypothesis the most generally held among scientists, the and its planets formed at first a single nebulous body, that is to say, an enormous roidal mass of gas occupying an immense space.

This mass, animated with a slow movement of rotation, condensed in concentric !, turning around the common centre in the plane of its equator. Each of the i broke up. The fragments, forming in their tarn small spheres, continued, while ensing, to turn around the principal mass. In this way the planets were formed, earth is one of these planets.

Separated from the sun, the earth, continuing to cool, passed slowly from the )us to the liquid state. Blocks of solid matter soon began to iloat upon its sur- as ice does on the surface of ponds, when the temperature has fallen for some below 32 degrees Fab.. Then these blocks fused together, forming like archipela- upon the liquid mass, and incnjsted this burning sea, somewhat as in the new egg hell hardens although the interior remains fluid.

Modifications of tlie crust of the earth. — But this mass continued to Jown, and its crust, which is none other than the shell of our globe, remained of t thickness. Hence splits and depressions, and when the compressed interior gases 1 vent through less resisting parts of the crust, violent eruptions took place. These •ed the crust with volcanic outbursts, or upheaved within it what have been called ruptive rocks. This action, intense in the first ages of the earth, continues down 5 present day. Certain portions of the earth rise up, others become depressed ; Is suddenly emerge or disappear; earthquakes shake this or that part of the crust; noes cast around them fiery or liquid matter, issuing from the bosom of the

Formation of new lands, — Simultaneously with this interior work another on, and still continues on the exterior of the crust of the earth. As the central

CHINESE EMPIRE.

core of the earth condensed by cooling, there occurred a similar condensation of some of the constituents of its gaseous envelope. Heavy mists and abundant rains developed over the crust an immense sheet of water. This mass, consequent on the never-ending changes wrought on the surface of the crust, withdrew, now in one cavity, now in another, thus forming mighty seas above which rose continents.

Upon these continents, as in the seas, living beings subsequently appeared; plants, fish, birds, and quadrupeds. Some of these still exist, others have disappeared, leaving their traces beneath the soil. Thanks to these marks, we can discover the age of suoh or such strata of the earth. These strata are, in order of age, and beginning by the oldest :

The	Azoic	strata (without trace of life) or primitive,
The	Primary	strata,
The	Secondary	strata,
The	Tertiary	strata.
The	Qtiaternary	strata.

Igneous and sedimentary rocks.— In these layers two kinds of rocks are found: igneous rocks, of which the Azoic strata are formed, and sedimentary or stratified rocks.

The igneous (or Plutonic) rocks are formed by the solidifying of the exterior layers of the molten matter : gneiss, mica-schist.

The sedimentary (or Neptunian) rocks are formed by the disintegration of the igneous rooks. These debris deposited at the bottom of lakes and seas, together with the remains of animals, form, through a process of drying and hardening, new rocks [clay, sand-stone, limestone] .

This rapid and very incomplete sketch of the formation of the earth will enable us now to study the formation of the soil of China.

Formation of the soil of China. — China, as we stated in the beginning, forms a part of Asia, the South-Eastern. From primitive times two portions of Asia seem to have emerged. In the North, in the region of Irkutsk and extending as far as Korea, was the continent called Eurasia (formed by Europe and Asia), which soon continued to the North by Anga- ra. This continent occupied a large portion of present Siberia. In the South, in the present peninsula of Hindustan, and extending to Australia, was the land of Gundwana (so called from the ancient flora of Gund- wana, common to its different parts). Between these two conti- nents, occupying consequently nearly the whole space now forming China, was the central Mediterranean sea, called some- times Thetys (the sea). In the primitive period,therefore,China, except Manchuria, the Western border of Mongolia and some parts of Tibet, was buried be- neath the water.

Formation of,the soil of China. (~] Sea. "^

Land,

In the North, Eurasia. In the South, the land of Gundwana. Between the two the Central Mediterranean Sea.

INTRODUCTION. 6

China in the different geological periods. — At the close of the Primary period, the greatest portion of China emerged, save the South-Western.

Durinfi- the whole of the Primary period and the iirst part of the Secondary period, China remained under water. It then emerged definitively. Subsequently came foldings and dislocations, which evolved hollows like that of Sungaria, or emerged in peaks like those of the Altai' mountains, T'ien-shan, K'nenlun, Nan-shan and Tibet. Several of these summits, the K'nenlun and Nan-shan for instance, were formerly very high, but erosion has greatly lessened them. Of the sedimentary coating that covered the high summits, there remain but fragments in the less elevated parts, as in the South-Westei-n portion of China.

After the first half of the Secondary period, the geological constitution of China was nearly completed. No trace is to be found of jura-limestone and chalk formations, such as were formed elsewhere at the end of the Secondary period.

During the Tertiary and Quaternary period, China, now completely out of water, underwent but modifications of its surface, and developed no new rocks.

Formation of coal and sand-stone. — At the close of the Primary period, immense deposits of coal formed along the coasts of Eurasia and Gnndwana, in tho place now occupied by Yiinnan, Kweichow, Honan, Shensi and Shansi.

Great lakes occupied a portion of Eastern China from the Secondary period. When these disappeared, they left behind a thick bed of rooks deposited in their depths; to these rocks has been given the name of sand-stone, so abiindant still in many pla- ces of China, and particularly in Szechw'an and throughout the whole of Southern China.

Modifications -n^rought on the snrface. — At the same time the mountain- tops were attacked by glaciers, winds, frosts and torrents, and the debris borne away; lakes were filled, the gentler hills became plains, islands like Shantung were joined together, and there were deposited in the North those thick layers of yellow and fertile earth, called Icess, which we shall have more than once occasion to speak about. Volcanic Action and Eruptions. — Volcanic action does not seem to have been intense. There remain traces of it however in the neighbourhood of Nanking, in the North of Peking, in some regions of Mongolia and in Tibet.

The eruptive rocks play a more important part. These rocks, the principal of which are porphyry and granite, were spread over a great part of China. The moun- tains of Pokien, for instance, are mostly composed of porphyry.

Present geological action. — This work of geological formation still goes on at the present day, and is more especially to be seen at the mouths of the great rivers where new lands, called deltas, are continually forming.

Predominant Roclis of the Chinese soil. — From what has been said upon the geological formation of China, it is easy to account for the rooks that predominate. For the most part the strata are either Primary or Secondary. The Azoic strata are scarcely represented, covered over as they are by the others. Coal takes up a large place, and loess covers a vast portion of Northern China, extending from Kansu to Shantung and Kiangsu.

A peculiar kind of limestone, known as China limestone, and formed before the coal-beds, is found all over China. Its thickness is at times 10,000 ft. and sometimes more. It is the rock the most widely diffused throughout China.

New modifications -wrought on the snrface of China. — It may be said in general, that the surface of China slopes from West to East, the highest peaks being found in Tibet and the vast low-lying plains in the East. This slope is moreover

4 CHINESE EMPIRE.

cleai-ly indicated, by the general direction of the great rivers. But it has not always been thus. Sfany actual mountain-masses ; Tibet, Szeohw'an, Yiinnan, were once great table-lands, that sloped in course of time to the East. It is thus that the same laj'er of rooks is found in the sea, on the coasts of Tongking, and at an elevation of 6500 ft. in Yiinnan and Szeohw'an. Other parts, now immense plains, were formerly mountains, but the unceasing action of alluvion-charged rivers, and sand-laden winds gi'adiially filled up the valleys, leaving nothing henceforth emerging but the highest peaks. The table-lands were also vigourously attacked by the combined action of climate and water which constantly eroded and disintegrated them. Mighty glaciers, like those nowadays in Tibet and Eastern Turkestan, dug out deep valleys; long frosts rent the rooks ; and the water, to find an issue, worked a passage through the least resisting parts of the strata.

Lakes, encircled b/ a girdle of rocks, deposited there heavy alluvion, and then filling up, overflowed their low banks. This action of the water gradually wore way the rooks, rapids dug deep gorges, imtil at last the lakes were drained, and left behind a fertile soil, which brought prosperity to its possessors.

Flora and fauna of the first ages. — What were the primitive fauna and flora of China ? This we can learn by studying its rocks. Suffice it to state that copious vegetation once covered its high peaks; it is this vegetation which, buried in the depths of the earth, has formed the present coal-fields. Animals, much larger than these of to-day, among others the mammoth, inhabited the country.

The first inhabitants of China. Their place of orighi. — Who were the first inhabitants of China ? In the present state of science, an answer to this question is impossible. Did they come from the S.-W. by Burma ? From the N., by the great plain of Siberia, or from the N. W. by the valley of the Hwang-ho ? In the absence of trustworthy documents, we will follow the Chinese traditions, according to which the hundred families^ the hlach^liaired race, came from the \^'est.

The first Chinese inhabitants (according to their ancient descriptive chara- cters). — When the race first entered the country, they found it still covered with swamps, and transformed it little by little into agricultural land. They had also to dwell temporarily in mountain caves, and wage constant war against wild animals : the lion, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, panther, bear, wolf etc... all these being then more numerous than now. They came likewise into contact with a half-savage population, frequently hostile, with whom they had at times to dwell together, but were compelled oftener to fight. Several of these races are still extant in China, in the S. especially : the Lolos, and the Miao-tze. Others, the I, seem to have been driven Northwards and thence to have crossed over to America.

What were the life, manners, language, and religion of these first Chinese ? They were nomads, shepherds and hunters, but settled down gradually and cultivated the soil. Covered at first with the skins of wild beasts, they learned later on to ma- nufacture cloth and make garments.

Their food was meat and afterwards grain, when they became tillers of the soil. They had a knowledge of copper and knew also how to work in wood. Shells, soon replaced by ingots of copper fulfilled the office of money. They were fond of noise dancing, and music. To preserve the memory of great events, they made knots on cords, and later on, notches on sticks. Their writing first consisted of rude outlines. At their head was a chieftain, whom they considered as the medium between heaven and earth. Around him gathered several clans. The laws were very harsh and paren- tal authority reigned supreme in the family.

Their religion recognized and honoured a Supreme Lord. They paid great

INTHODUCTION. 5

attention to natural phenomena, and tried thereby to ascertain the will of heaven; for this purpose, they also applied fire to the carapace of the tortoise, and tried to discover the future by the lines that resulted therefrom. They feared the influence of evil genii. They did not bury their dead, but wrapping them up in bundles of haj', watched over them until decomposition set in.

Actual China. — Having briefly examined ancient China, how its soil was formed and shaped, and what were its first inhabitants, it now remains for us to study what actual China is.

Sitaation. — By the Chinese Emph-e is understood all that part of Asia which lies between 53° and 10° N. latitude, proceeding from N. to S.,and going from W". to E., the whole region extending between the 74° and 134° longitude E. from Green.wich. Divisions. — In this vast Empire, certain parts are governed more or less immediately by the Emperor of China. Some are merely tributary states. The most important region is called CHINA TROPER, and comprises the 18 Provinces. It is this latter which will be the principal theme of the present work. Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan or the New Territory (Sinkiang) and Tibet will afterwards be studied, each in turn.

Boundaries. — China is bounded on the N. and N.W. — By Siberia, W. — By Russian Turkestan, S.W. — By Hindustan,

S. and E. — Bj' Tongking and the Pacific Ocean, N.E. — By Korea. Area and Population. — The population of the Chinese Empire, according to the latest official census taken in 1902, is said to amount to 130,000,000 inhabitants. These are distributed over the 4,278,352 square miles which form the country, as follows :

Population. Square miles. China Proper (i.e. the 18 Provinces) '110,000,000. 1,532,800.

Manchuria 8,500,000. 863,700.

Mongolia 2,580,000. 1,367,953.

Chinese Turkestan 1,200,000. 550,579.

Tibet 0,430,000. 463,320.

Reasous of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. — The climate, the mountainous character of the country, the nature of the soil, explain this unequal distri- bution of inhabitants in the different parts of China, as we shall see further on, when studying in detail each of its Provinces. Manchuria, cold and hilly, is far from affording its people the resources which abound throughout the rich and sunny plains of the 18 Provinces. Mongolia and Turkestan, fi'ozen in Winter, excessively hot in Summer, and swept continually by sand-storms exhibit but few fertile spots, wherein the bare necessaries of life are found. Tibet, with its snow-capped summits, is a fit abode for man only in those deep valleys where milder air is to be found.

Difllcnity of a collective view. — It is by examining each of these countries in detail, that we can study their mountains, plains, table-lands, the distribution of their waters, their climate, resources, and administration, in a word, everything which constitutes their geography. Their different features vai'y too much, and thereby hinder anything like a general view.

Study of the 18 Provinces. — The 18 Provinces forming the most important part of the Ejipiee will be the object of a more special study.

CHINESE EMPIRE.

Beferences :

S. W. Williams. — The Middle Kingdom.

London, 1883. Cordier. — Bibliotheca sinica. Paris, 1904,

1905... Cordier. — Les Etudes chinoises. Leide,

1895, 1898, 1903. T'oung-pao (from 1890). Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie fran^aise. Revue frau9aise d'exploration. La Gfiographie. Annales de Geographie. Geographical Journal. Richthofen. — China. Berlin, 1877-83. Boulger. — History of China. Dn Ilalde, — Description gSographique

de Tempire de la Chine. Paris, 1736. Memoires ooncernant rhistoire,les sciences,

les arts etc. des Chinois. Paris, 1776. Grosier. — Description generale de la

Chine. Paris, 1818-1820. J.F. Davis. ~ The Chinese. London, 1857. Pauthier. — Chine moderne. Paris, 1853. Wieger. — Textes historiques. Hokien

fou, 1903 (Introduction). Mesny. — Chinese Miscell. Sh anghai, 1S95,

98, 99, 1905. Ball.— Things Chinese, 1905. Giles. — A glossary of reference. Pr.Kuropatliin.— The orography of Asia

(Geog. Journal, 1904 p. 176).

For geology :

Richthofen. — China, and also : Letters.

Shanghai, 1873. Siiess. — La face de la terre. Paris, 1897

et 1900. (2'' part ch. VII, VIII et XII 3"

part, ch. III). de Lapparent. — Lemons de geographie

physique. Paris, 1896 (22= lejon : Les

terres asiatiques). Leprince-Riiiguet. — Etude geologique

sur le Nord de la Chiue. Paris, 1901. I/eol6i'e. — Etude geologique et miniere

des provinces chinoises voisines du Ton-

kin. Paris, 1902.

Pumpelly. — Geological researches in China.

Tiesseu — China, das Eeiche der achtzehn Provinzen. Erster TeU. Die allgemeine geographie des Landes. Berlin, 1902.

On the Ghinese Empire, see also passim : Echo de Chine, North-China Daily News, China Review, Journal asiatique,Bulletin de I'Ecole franfaise d'Extrfime-Orient, Far Eastern Review, Ost Asia, Chine et Belgique....

BOOK I. CHINA PROPER

OR

THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES

r-h A #]

GENERAL NOTIONS.

Names applied to tbe country and its people. — We

shall call the principal part of this vast Empire China proper or the 18 provinces, for such is the division that prevails at the present day. The country is also called China, presumably on account of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, under which it became better known to the nations of the West. This name underwent various tranformations such as : J^in, Chin, Sina, China. The Romans called it Serica or the silk-producing land. In the Middle-Ages, it received the name of Cathay. It is also known as the Middle Kingdom (Chung-kwoh tf' ^), this name being applied by the Chinese to the central part of their country ; and as the Mowerp Kingdom (Hwa-kwoh ^^). The Chinese are often called Han- jen [^ A)i ni6" of Han, this being the name of a celebrated dynasty.

Situation.— China Proper lies between 18° and 43° North Latitude, and extends from 98° to 122" longitude East from Greenwich.

Boundaries. — China proper is bounded on the N. By Mongolia,

W. By Chinese Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. By Burma, 8. By Tongking % :^ and the Gulf of Tongking,

8

BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES,

S.E. By the South China Sea, E. By the Eastern Sea,

N.E. By the Yellow Sea, the Gulf of Chihli |t ^, and by Manchuria.

Nliape. — China is shaped like a fan, the handle of which would be N.W. Kansu '^' ^, and the semicircular edge, the coast-line with two horns standing out at the two extremities. To the N.E., is the Shantung ]}} ^ Promontory, and to the S.E., that of Leichow Fu 'g' ^ f^, terminating in the sea by the island of Hainan f^ ^.

Area and Population. — The area of China Proper is

1,532,800 square miles, and its population 410 000 000 inhabi- tants, distributed as follows, according to the official census of 1902.

AREA AND POPULATION.

Provinces.	Area in Square mii,es.	Population.	Persons Per sq. mii<e.
Chgkiang if U	36 680	II 580 000	310
Chihli it »	115 830	20 930 000	180
Fokien m m	46 332	22 870 000	492
Honan Jof ^	67 954	25 317 820	373
Hunan M W	83 398	22 169 000	265
Hupeh ^ *	71 428	35 280 000	495
Kansu -fr ST	125 483	10 386 000	82
Kiangsi ii W	69498	26 532 000	382
Kiangsu ft M	38 610	23 980 230	620
Kwangsi ^ M	77 220	5 142 000	66
Kwangtung ^ ^ Kweichow ^ ^m	TOO 000 67 182	31 865 200 7 650 000	318 114
Nganhwei* ^ ^	54 826	23 672 300	432
Shansi (Ij W	81 853	12 200 000	149
Shantung [U "^	55 984	38 247 900	683
Shensi m S	75 290	8 450 000	112
Szechw'an H )\\	218 533	68 724 800	314
Yunnan § ^	146 718	12 721 500	86

* Also written "Anlnii" and "Anhwei"

GENERAL NOTIONS.

9

It may be seen from the above tableau that the largest Provinces are those of Szechw'an and Yunnan, and the smallest one, that of Chekiang. The Provinces of greatest population are those of Szechw'an and Shantung. Kwangsi has the least num- ber of inhabitants. It is in Shantung and Kiangsu that the population is most dense, while it is thinnest in Kwangsi. Gene- rally speaking, the N. W. and S. W. Provinces are those in which the inhabitants are the least numerous. This arises

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTHERN CHINA.

According to Richthofen, Pumpelly and A. David.

^

^ ■

Alluvion. Yellow earth, Red alluvion Paleozoic. Metamor- of A. David, phic.

Volcanic,

Carboni- ferous,

10 BOOK. I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

principally from the mountainous and less fertile nature of the country, and also from the various Mahomedan rebellions, which overran these regions. In regard to mining prospects, as we shall see subsequently, those latter are the richest in mineral deposits. Industry, perhaps, will give them a new l^ase of life and activity, which will place them for wealth in equal rank whith the others. These abound especially in agricultural productions.

Oeologlcal constitution. — We have seen above how the formation of the soil of the Chinese empire was effected. It is especially in the N. W. and in the W. that China has undergone the greatest upheaval. In the 8. of the Yangtze- kiang ^ -f- fH., the vast calcareous table-land developed there, sloped towards the E. sinking down however towards its centre, in the portion occupied by the Siang-kiang J|g jj;, a tributary of the Yangtze-kiang, and by several of the tributaries of the Si-kiang "gf JX '• the Liu-kiang ^ ^, Yuh-kiang ^ %£, and Tso-kiang ^ f£.

This calcareous table-land, nowadays much intersected by the rivers that flow through it, offers the most varied and fantastic features : table-lands, mountains, peaks, spurs, conical- shaped hills, pinnacles, and castellated forms. The parts that have offered the greatest resistance to the work of erosion are limestone, sand-stone, clay and the eruptive rocks. Those com- posed of slate, on the contrary, have been deeply indented, and in places completely eaten away by erosion. In the Western part of this region are abundant deposits of coal, occupying a qua- drilateral, whose corners are Laok'ai ^ P^, Yiinnan Fu ^ ]^ jj^, Tungchw'an Fu y^ )\\ )^ and Kweiyang Fu ;^; |^ ;^.

The coast region of Kwantung ^' ^, Fokien |g ^, and Chfikiang jj/f Jl presents quite a different geological com- position and belongs to another period. It is in great part composed of granite and porphyry, the granite prevailing along the coasts. Several islands are of volcanic formation.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ Jl, the geological cons- titution varies. In the N. W. the great upheavals, half covered with a layer of loess, prevail. They continue Eastwards, sloping down towards an immense alluvial plain, which partially encloses Shantung \\] ^, formerly an island, composed of azoic and primary rocks.

Orograpliy or Mountain Systems. — The massive and elevated table-land of Tibet forms the centre Qr backbone from which all the mountains of China branch off throughout the country.

&ENERAL NOTIONS. 11

To tlte Morth, the Xkistem JSftiettl'un ^ ^ throwing out numerous chains into Kansu y* ^, and splitting up towards the E. into 3 principal systems :

1° The AlasJian (Holan-shan ^ ^ ill) range, running North- Eastwards through the Ordos plateau into the bend of the Hwangho ^ fpj", then continuing through the Shansi |Jj ^ plateau, the In-shan |^ [ll mountains and Inner Hsingngan ^ ^. The Alashan range attains towards the South an elevation of more than 9800 ft. The Ordos plateau averaging in height from 4,900 to 5,200 ft., slopes down in its Northward part.

The Shansi plateau, whose average height is from 6,500 to 8,000 feet, attains towards the N. an elevation of 11,500 ft. The In-shan mountains extend S. E. of Mongolia and separate it from China. We shall deal with them when describing this high table-land.

To this system may be attached the Kansu "^^ mountains, N. of the Ku-ku Nor region, their elevation frequently sur- passing 16,400 feet. The range here inclines from the N. W. towards the S. E..

2". The Eastern K'uenlun ^ -^ properly so-called. This range separates the basin of the Hwang-ho ^ fpf from that of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fx., and takes successively, as it runs from W. to E. the names of the Sik'ingshan 'g j^ [Ij, Ts'inling- shan ^ ^ lU, Funiu-shan f/J 4^ (Ij and Hwaiyang-shan fH |^ \\i. These mountains have a descending slope from W. to E. and attain an elevation of 13,000 feet, in several parts of the Ts'inling, whose average height is about 6,500 feet. They rise again to the same elevation in the Funiu range, which averages only 2,600 feet in height. Further on, to the Eastward, they can be easily crossed in the Hwaiyang range, which attains an average elevation of 3,200 feet, and has a few peaks double this altitude. As far as the Hwai-shan range, the K'uenlun mountains form a strong barrier between the Hwang-ho and Yangtze rivers. These various chains cannot be crossed except near their extre- mities, and the passes over them are all very steep.

3* The MiM-ahan ^ |1| and KitOunff -^ f| ranges. The

12 BOOK I. THE, 18 PROVINCES.

former runs along the Northern limit of Szechw'an, the second separates the Han-ho ^ fpf from the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fX.- The Min-shan attains an average elevation of 8,200 feet, and rises even higher as it pdvances Westwards. The Kiulung has an average height of 11,400 ft. Between these two mountains, there is but one pass, that which the Kialing-kiang ^ ^ Q! has chosen and whereby it enters Szechw'an [5| j||.

In the Centre we find tJve hiffh table-land, of Szechu/an, or rather of Oh'Sngtu j^ ^, composed of red sand-stone, excee- dingly fertile. It reaches in elevation about 1,640 ft, and is sur- rounded on the N.,E., and principally on the W., by high moun- tains. These rise to an elevation of 19,680 ft and incline East- wards as may be observed by the course of the rivers rising in their midst. Their passes are difficult. The principal one is that of Tats'ienlu fl" ^ M' near Pat'ang g, ||.

In the South, the mountains of Eastern Szechw'an gg )\\ run from the N. W. to the S. E. and continue towards the W. of Yunnan ^ '^, where they expand to the N. and E. into the immense table-lands of Yunnan, Kweichow ;^ 'J>f| and, Kwangsi ^ 'g. All three slope gradually from W. to E.. The Yiinnan plateau is the highest, and reaches an average elevation of 7,600 ft. while those of Kweichow and Kwangsi attain only 4200 ft. and 1000 ft. respectively.

These 3 table-lands continue between the Si-kiang "gf ^ and the Yangtze-kiang in the form of hills, the elevation of which seldom exceeds 6000 ft. We shall call them the Nan-shan f§ ill or Southern mountains, a rather irregular mass, running at first from N. W. to E., and which finally takes at the E., a North-Eastern and South-Western direction. The Nan-shan, though not a very high range, forms to some extent, a barrier between the basin of the Yangtze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang. Three principal passes unite the 2 basins. The Ilrvei-ling g ^ pass, between Kwei-lin ^ j^ and the valley of the Siang- kiang ffg ^i the Cheh-ling ^ ^ pass, between the basin of the Siang-kiang and the Pei-kiang 4fc jj, a tributary of

GENERAL NOTIONS. 13

the Si-kiang; the Mei-ling i^^{ pass, between the basin of the Kiang-si ^ ^ and the Pei-kiang.

OtUer Systems. — Besides the above systems, which cover nearly the whole of China, there are 2 other important ranges extending along the coast, one to the South, and the other to the North, forming the Shantung \\\ y^ promontory.

1° The Tayil-ling :^ j^ -^ covers a great part of Fokien M ^ ^"d of Chfikiang j^ JJ. The range runs parallel with the coast, North-East and South-West, and forms the boundary line between these two Provinces. Its elevation ranges from 6500 ft to 9800 ft. The geological constitution of these moun- tains is porphyry and granite.

2° The Shantung [Ij ;^ hills are formed by several groups, whose highest peak, the T'ai-shan ^ [[], attains 5,060 feet in height. Gneiss and granite abound in them, and their passes are less steep than those of the Yii-ling. "We shall examine these mountains more in detail, their structure and their divi- sion, when describing the Provinces in which they are found.

Historical or Sacred Mountains. — Let us mention, before concluding the orography of China, its 5 Sacred Mountains, (Wu Toh i^) famous in the annals of Ihe country. These are the following : the T'ai-shan ^ llj, in Shantung |lj ^; Hang- shan "Iglll, in Shansi jljlf ; Sung-shan ;^ Jj, in Honan fp] ^ ; Hwa-ahan ^ [Jj, in Shensi ^\ ^; Heng-shan ^ |Jj, in Ifunan

Several other mountains are also famous. The principal are : ihe 3 peaks of Doleerla, near Atuntze, N.W. of Yunnan g ^ ; J^gomei-sJian |I^ ^ llj) Jfi Western Szechw'an ^ )\\ ; Wut'ai- shan 3£ J ill, in the N. of Shansi iJj "g.

Plains. — The Great Plain lies to the N. E. of China, and occupies the greater part of Chihli jj; ^, Honan jpf 'j^, Ngan- hwei ^ ^, Kiangsu ^ j^ and Shantung ^Ij ^. It is slightly undulated and is of alluvial or loess formation.

Besides the Great Plain, there are others of lesser impor- tance, the principal of which are : the Tungt'ing Lake plain f|p) y^, that of Hank'ow ^ p and of the P'oyang Lake f^ %, all of which

i4 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

are situated in the Yangtze ^^p valley. The plains of Hangchow Fu j^ >}^ ^ and of Canton are much less important.

Climate. — Speaking in general, it may be said that China enjoys two quite distinct seasons : 1° TTiat produced bp the North-ivinds. This becomes more i-igourous as one advances Northwards. The weather is generally dry when dust-storms prevail over the plains of the North. It lasts from November to April. 2° That resuZtitig from the Southem-tvinds. The chief features of this season are its excessive heat, which is moister and more unhealthy along the coasts, while in the interior, it is greater, but healthier and less depressing. Rain falls fre- quently during this season and rivers overflow their banks.

Between these 2 Seasons are a short Spring and Autumn. The winds change their direction and the temperature is un- steady. Spring is generally ushered in by spells of increasing warmth; Autumn, on the contrary, is mild and agreeable, and lasts from the end of September till the middle of November.

At X'ientsin J^^f^ the thermometer falls in Winter to — 4 Fahrenheit, and rises in Summer to 100 F..

At ShMnffhai Ji^ it reaches in Winter 17°5 or occasionally 10°5 F. and rises in Summer to 96°5, and sometimes to 102° F..

At Canton it rarely falls in Winter below 32° F., while in Summer the maximum varies from 96°8 to 100°4 F..

Taken on the whole, China enjoys a rather dry climate, that is, it rains less there than in other climates lying within the same limits of latitude. Szeohw'an pg ji| and the neigh- bouring regions : lower Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow -^ jlfl, the South of Kansu "fl" ^ and of Shensi |^ 'g' are however exce- ptions, the climate of these Provinces being foggy and rainy.

These features of the climate of China are especially due to its situation, on the South of the vast and lofty table-land of Mongolia. Hot air tends by its nature to ascend to the higher regions of the atmosphere, while cold air, on the contrary, tends to descend. In Winter, the high table-land of Mongolia, deprived of the warmth of the sun, pours its cold air upon the regions of China that are less elevated and whose air is warmer ; there is then produced a current of air coming from the N., In Summer, on the contrary, the sands of Mongolia are heated by

GENERAL NOTIONS. 15

the sun. They are thus covered by a -warmer layer of air than that of China, cooled by its rivers and the sea that bathes it. A current then sets in from the S.. As the sea changes its temperature more slowly than the land, the coasts of China undergo less variation in their climate than the interior.

These two great movements, bear also close relation to the variations of the atmospheric pressure, and belong in fact to the great phenomenon of the monsoons, to which the whole Asiatic continent is subject.

Hydrography. — No country in the world is so well watered as China. Her river system, like her mountain system, is intimately connected with Tibet. Her rivers rise there like her mountains and run in a West to Easterly direction. China possesses 3 great rivers.

In the North, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River ^ Jpj), which rises South of the Ku-ku Nor or Ts'ing-hai ^ ^, takes an extensive Northerly sweep round the Ortos plateau, forms the Western boundary of the Shansi [Jj ^ plateau, and flows into the Gulf of Ohihli |t ^. Its total length is about 2,700 miles. In the Centre, the Tangtee^hiang ^ ^ JH (Yang Kingdom river), called also the Slue Hiver. The Yangtze rises to the S. of the Hwang-ho, and runs at first Southward, under the name of the Kinsha-kiang (Golden sand river ^^^l), then takes a North Easterly direction, leaving to the North-West the Szechw'an pgjH plateau, and flows into the Tung-hai '^^ or Eastern Sea, a little to the North of Shanghai _h^. Its length is 3,200 miles. Jn the South, the Si-leiang (Western rvver 'g ;^), which rises in the Yiinnan ^ ^ plateau, and empties itself near Can- ton into the South China Sea, after a course of 1,250 miles.

Of the mirwr rivers, which water through themselves, or through their tributaries, the greater part of China, the most, important are the 3 folloudng :

1° The Pehr-ho (White river ^ ^) rising in Mongolia, runs through the Chihli ^ ^ Province and flows into the Gulf of Chihli.

2" The Bwei-ho J^fp[ which drains the Provinces of Honan fpf •^ and Nganhwei ^ ^ and flows into the Hungtseh lake

mm-

16 BOOK. I. THK 18 PROVINCES.

3° The Min-Jciang f^fz^ which flows through Fokien |g^, and empties its waters into the China Sea, N. of Formosa.

The Mekong or Lants'ang-hiang }|| -^ ^ and the SaZtveen or lAirkuing -^ \X.^ ^i'6 also important streams, but they drain only the lower and less considerable part of Yiinnan § ^.

Of all these rivers, the 'Sang-tze ^ ^ is by far the most important, being an excellent water highway of communication. The Si-ltiang 'g^ fx. offers a good network of navigable chan- nels but of less limited extent. TTie Hwang-ho ^ fpj' is navigable only in some parts. The waters of all three, rise exceedingly in Summer when heavy rains fall, and the snows melt on the mountain sides. The waters of the Yangtze then rise to 30, 45 and even to 80 feet above the ordinary level, transforming marshes and even simple ponds into immense lakes.

Tiakes. — The principal lakes are found in the Yangtze valley, and are the following : the Tnngt'ing ^ ^ lake, in Hunan jj^ ]^ ; the T'oyang % |^ lake, in Kiangsi iX ]® ; the T'aiftM ;fc j^ in Kiangsu £i: i^.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang, the most important is the Hungtseh ^ ^, which lies partly in Nganhwei ^ ^, partly in Kiangsu ^ ^. This latter Province is the one that possesses the greatest number of lakes and water-courses. Let us mention also the lakes of the tahle-land of Yumnan ^ '^, the two prin- cipal of which lie, one near the town of Yunnan Fu ^ ]?^ ^, the other near Tali Fu ;;*: g| j^.

Coast-line. — The coast is low and straight along the Ohihli ]i; ^ Province, but indented and abrupt along the Shan- tung [Ij ^ Promontory, while it falls again to a low level and almost straightens out till it reaches ChSkiang -^ ^. From Ch^kiang to the Gulf of Tongking "f^ ^, it is very steep, indented and studded with numerous islets. It is here and along Shantung, that the finest and deepest bays are foynd, and facilities afforded for opening well protected and promising ports.

Fanna and Flora. — As the fauna and flora of a country bear close relation to its climate and soil, we shall finr". the animals and vegetation of China varying according to. both.

&ENERAL NOTIONS. 17

The lower portions of the Southern region alone possess a tropical climate, and consequently the fauna and flora of the tropics. The valley of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iX' although very warm in Summer, is loo cold in Winter fpr the animals and plants of the tropical region to live there. Still less can they live in the region of the Hwang-ho ^^pJ, cpvered as it is during several Winter months with ice and snow, espe- cially in the high mountains of the W.. We shall study sega- rately, the fauna and flora of each of these regions, A few words only on the principal animals and vegetation of China, and how they are divided.

Fauna. — Wild animals. Neither the lion, elephant (except in Southern Yunnan ^ ^) or rhinoceros, are met with in China. The tiger, panther and bear infest the mountainous regions. The wild bear, the wolf and the fox abound through- out the country. Several varieties of monkeys are found in the regions bordering on Tibet. In the South-Eastern mountains near Tibet, the yak or grunling-ox exists.

There are also in China several varieties of deer, the camel and wild-ass (in the regions bordering on Tibet), the hare, the rat, the gerboa etc.

Domestic animals. China's domestic animals are princi- pally the horse, ass, mule, camel, cow, zebu or humped ox, water-buffalo, yak, sheep, goat, dog, cat, pig, rabbit etc...

Birds, There are a great number of birds, perhaps more than in other countries. About 800 species are indigenous to the country. The principal are the eagle, vulture, crow, magpie, and pheasant, and among the tame birds, the duck, goose, hen and pigeon.

JleptHes. The large and venomous kinds of reptiles are rarely encountered, except in Kwangsi ^ '^ and Kweichow * j\\. Various kinds of turtle and the salamander abound in fresh and salt water.

Fish. Fish of various kinds are very plentiful, both in the numerous inland lakes and rivers, as well as on the sea- coast, and furnish excellent food for the people. China has no lobsters but instead has an abundant supply of shrimps and fresh-water crabs.

2

18 BOOK I. THE lS

PROVINCES.

Flora. — Jn the Northern region, or that of the Hwang- ho ^ JpJ, the Winter is generally too severe to allow the development of perennial tropical vegetation ; however a good number of annual (living only a year or a season) plants proper to the tropics are raised, such as cotton, rice and sesamum. The vegetation of this region is, in general, poor and little diversified. The principal crops produced are indian-corn, millet, sorghum, buckwheat, peas and wheat. The trees are few and include the poplar, willow and pine. (The bamboo is not indigenous to this region, it being never found growing wild.) Fruit-trees abound especially in Shantung [Jj ^, and in the Western Provinces. The principal are the peach, pear, and apple-trees. The apricot, chestnut, walnut and cherry-trees are also found. (The persimmon and plum-tree are imported from the South.)

In the Central region, that of the Yangtze ^ ■^, the Winter being generally milder, more varieties come to maturity. Perennial tropical plants are however found only exceptionally in some well shaded parts of Szechw'an pgj|| and Hunan j^ j^. In this region are found the bamboo, the persimmon or date-plum, the orange, the tea-plant and the camphor-tree. Rice and cotton are cultivated throughout all the lowlands. Here also flourish the gum, tallow, wax and varnish-trees, with the mulberry so dear to the silk-worm. It has but one=kind of palm-tree which is indigenous.

In the Southern region, that of the Si-kiang g ^, tropical vegetation makes its appearance, though it is confined to the lowlands. Summer rains are more frequent, and vegetation luxuriant, without being however much diversified. The charac- teristic plants are the sugar-cane, the banana and palm-trees, the lichee, pine-apple, ebony, mahogany and teak-wood trees.

Diffinslon of tlie Population. — ■ From what has been said so far, it is easy to see that the regions, which offer the most favourable conditions of existence, are the Yangtze ^ ^ valley, the Great North-Eastern plain and the country along the coast. It is there also that the population is densest. The North-Western regions: (Kansu fl"^, Shensi |5^|g, and Shansi lU M)' ®°*^ those of the South-West: (Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow ■^ j^\ and Kwangsi ^H), are less populous. The Chinese race

SENERAIi NOTIONS. 19

occupies almost exclusively the Hwang-ho ^ fpj" region and that of the Yangtze valley. In the valley of the Si-kiang g^, it is otherwise, and we find there several races mingled together.

Present diTislon of China. — For administrative pur- poses, modern China is divided into 18 Provinces. In past times, this number has frequently varied. Some divisions are relatively recent, for instance that of Kwantung ^ ^ and Kwangsi ^ "g , that of Hupeh fj^ ^ and Hunan t^ ^, that of Kiangsu yX i^ and Nganhwei ^ ^.

These six provinces formerly made but three. Kansu "^ "^ is a Province of still more recent formation.

TUe tbree Regions. — To render our plan easier, and also because it is the natural division of the country, we shall in this work, divide China into 3 regions or spheres, each of which we shall study successively : the Northern region, the Central, and the Southern region. On general lines, these comprise :

1° The Northern region: the basins of the Hwang-ho ^|^, and of the Peh-ho ^ jp|".

2" The Central region: the basin of the Yangtze-kiang ^

^ a-

3° The Southern region: the basins of the Si-kiang |5tE; and of the Min-kiang ^ fC-

To avoid dividing the study of a Province into two, we shall at times be obliged to encroach upon a neighbouring region. It is thus that the South of Shensi ^ 'g belongs rather to the Central region ; in the same way, the North of Kiangsu ^ j^ belongs rather to the Northern region, lower Yiinnan ^ ■^ to the Central region and also the North of Kweichow

To facilitate likewise the work, we shall group in the same study, those Provinces which are administratively connected. If at times they have similar characteristics, it may be said that they are oftener widely divergent. This will have the advantage of impressing the main features of those Provinces more vividly on the reader's mind.

Tables exhibiting the administration, ways of communica- tion, and sources of wealth, will combine in a general view, various notions scattered over the chapters describing each Province in particular, and thus help to remember them better.^

20

BOOK 1. THE 18 PROVINCES.

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Zi-ka-wei. — Bulletin mensuel de I'Obser- vatoire magnetique. — Chang-hai, 1874 and sq..

Zi-ka-wei. — Calendrier de I'Observatoire. (From 1903).

P. Froc. — L'atmosphere en Extreme- Orient, son etat normal, ses perturba- tions. (Extrait des Annales hydrogra- phiques, 1901-1902).

Raulin. — Eegenfall in China. 18861892.

Ratzel. — Schnee nnd Eis in siidehina in Jan. 1893.

China sea Directory (for the climate of the jjorts).

Maps.

S. Chevalier. — Carte de la Chine. Zi-ka- wei, 190i (characters and romanisation).

Bretschneider. — Map cf China. S* Pe- tersburg. 2'' edit., 1900.

Service g^ographique de I'armee. Asie. 1899-1901.

Service gfiodesique de I'Empire iaponais. Carte gen^rale de la Chine. Tokio, 1894.

Laughans. — Politisch militarisohe Karte von Ost Asien. Gotha, 1900.

IMadrolle. — Atlas de I'Empire chinois.

Paris, 1900 (in the press). Bianconi. — Carte speciale de la Chine.

Paris, 1900. Oxenham. — Historical Atlas of the Chi- nese Empire. Paris, 1900.

SECTION I.

THE NORTHERN REGION.

CHAPTER I.

VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO jg }pf AND OF THE HWANG-HO ^ pj.

Characteristics of tliis Region. — Among the numerous characteristics of this region, the following are the principal :

1 . The region lies immediately to the South of the Mongolian table-land, the average height of which is 5000 feet. Its effects are therefore felt more than elsewhere in China, hence the Winter is exceedingly cold, and the Summer very hot.

2. Loess or alluvial lands are found there in abundance. These are very fertile when rain falls sufficiently, but in case of drought, the country is exposed to famine.

3. Towards the West, the region is mountainous, but lecel la the East. Communications with the neighbouring regions are very rare, except in the South-East.

4. The rivers and canals are scarcely navigable, hence the great difficulty experienced in travelling, and the necessity of using carts in the plain. During Summer, these vehicles snjfc deep into the mud, while in Winter they raise clouds of dust, anything like good roads being totally lacking.

5. The country is very much exposed to inundations, on account of the erratic nature of the Hwang-ho ^ fpf, the waters of which, flowing above the level of the surrounding plain, are maintained with Ike (jreatest difficulty within their loo weak embanhmenls.

22 SECTION I. The northern region.

Provinces comprising tliis region. — Proceeding from West to East, we find them to be the following :

Kansu fl* ^f,

Shensi |^ ^,

Shansi [Ij g,

Honan fpf ^,

Ohihli it ^,

Shantung llj ^. Of these Provinces, three, namely Ohihli, Shantung and Honan are partly level; and the others : Kansu, Shensi and Shansi, mountainous.

Geological Constitution. — The three tnounfainows Pro- vinces are to a great extent covered with loess. In the otliers, which are chiefly of alluviaZ formation, loess is but partially found.

Shantung however is an exception, being of granitic con- formation almost throughout, Zoess deserves special attention because of its prominence in this region. What is "loess" and what are its qualities?

lioess or Yellow Earth (Hwangt'u ^ j^)- — Loess is a solid but friable earth of a yellowish or reddish colour, very fine and of great cohesion. It is rather porous, while its mass is, as it were perforated by very fine tubes which branch out in the shape of grassroots. Water permeates it like a sponge, but does not transform it into mud. It is filled with the remnants of extinct organic matter. It is not superposed in stratified layers, and has a great tendency to split vertically, especially when a river has undermined its basis. Inundation and currents dig beds into its surface, and the inhabitants find shelter and protection in the numerous caves of its perpendicular cliffs. As to its formation, it seems to be accounted for by the remnants of countless generations of plants, embedded under sand and dust, blown over from the desert. In some parts, it forms a stratified mass, to the depth of about 2000 ft, and imparts to the country which it covers, a monotonous yellow hue; trees, houses, fields, water-courses, all, even the very atmosphere, is permeated with this yellow dust. The soil notwithstanding is fertile, and would produce abundant crops, were the climate a little moister and the region better wooded. Decomposed by rain, loess resolves itself into 3 parts: Carbonate of lime, sand, which forms a rather barren element, and clay, which imparts fertility to the soil.

Alluvial Iiands. — Alluvial lands are those formed by

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 23

the deposits which rain, rivers and glaciers constantly accumu- late. The great Eastern Plain has been thus formed by a certain species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by the ^vaters of the Hwang-ho ^ ^, the Peh-ho ^ fpf and very likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli (t^will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.

Orography. — No special feature requires to be added to

what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the

mountain systems of China. "We shall enter into more ample

details when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at

present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls

in the Hwang-bo ^ ^, and precludes every outlet, save through

the Chihli ^ ^ plain, situate to the E. of Honan fpf j§, a course

which in fact it formerly followed.

Climate. — The climate of the region is very severe and dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to — 4" F. in the Chihli j|[ ^ region, and the rivers remain frozen during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made for the S. of Kansu -^ "^ and Shensi ^ ^, where the climate is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are obliged to resort to the use of Stove-beds or JK'anffs >}^, upon which they lie down to rest for the night. These Stove-beds are entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China (Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re- gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ ^ fL-

Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei ^•Sfc Province, and the North of Kiangsu ^|^, where nevertheless they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.

Sydrograpliy. — All this region is watered by the Hwang-

/to ^ ^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ji[^j drained by the network of the JPeh-ho g f^, and Honan ^ 'j^, watered almost throughout by the Hwai-ho ^ fpj. We shall deal in detail with this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the Peh-ho ^ fflf, its natural place will be found, when we shall

24

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Study the Chihli Province. At present, we shall speak only of the Hwangho.

The Hwang-ho (TeUow river ^ jqj), length 2,700 miles. Like the Yangtze ^ ^ {L, i^ "ses in Tibet, South of the Ku-ku Nor region, and the K'uenlun ^ !^ range. Here, at an altitude pf more than 13,800 feet, in the midst of jagged hills, towering a little beyond the plateau, the mighty river has its source.

Its course may be divided into 3 parts : the upper, middle and lower.

1° Upper Course. — In this part, which extends from its source until it leaves the Kansu -^'-^ Province, it is interrupted by cascades and rapids, teems with boulders wrenched from its banks, and is seldom navigable.

UPPEE II\VANG-HO.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 25

It rises a little above the two neighbouring lakes of Khchara (Charing-nor) and Khnora (Oring-nor). Both are connected by a channel and are situated at an elevation of 14,000 ft. It may per- haps be at fii'st confounded with the Djaghinggol, a river 110 miles long, which flows from the South, and empties itself into the channel joining the two lakes. The plateau where it originates possesses but a scanty vegetation. The river issues forth in two successive bends, towards the N. E.; and is first called Machu, but is soon known as the Hwang-ho ^JnT- The first bend winds round the Amnemachin Mountains, the second, round the Ku-ku Nor or Ts'ing-hai ^ ^ lake, which lies at an elevation of over 10,000 ft. Swollen by the torrents of this region, and attaining a width of 220 yards, the Hwang-ho then flows through a large valley. As it enters Kansu H*;^' i' breaks its second bend, and is deflected to the East by a spur of the K'uenlun g^ ^. It main- tains however a general 8W.NE. direction till it leaves Kansu. When entering this Province, it flows at an altitude of 8,200 ft; on reaching Lanchow Fu f| f^ jj^, it has fallen to 5,800 ft.

Throughout the whole of Kansu -^ ^, it makes headway with the greatest difficulty, through the prolongation of the K'uen- lun g-^ mountains, which compels it to adopt a circuitous course and obstructs its career with fallen rocks, beneath which it even disappears at times. It receives in this part of its course 2 important tributaries : the Sining-ho M ^ fflf , which passes at Sining Fu 'SM M^ ^^^ '^ joined afterwards by the Tatfwng-Jio :k %. M' ^"'^ ^^^ I'ao-lio ^ fpj, this latter watering the South- West of Kansu "^ ;§". Before leaving Kansu, the Hwang-ho ^ fpf flows along the high chain of the Alashan (Holan-shan ^ ^ llj) mountains, and is forced by the Ordos plateau to take a Northward bend. If it is not navigable in Kansu, it is never- theless a source of wealth for the Province, as owing to its waters, conducted by canals of irrigation, immense plains are fertilised. It leaves the Province after watering the rich Ning- hsia % X plain. It then flows at an altitude of about 3,300 ft.

2" Middle Course. — This part extends from the place where the river leaves Kansu -^ ^, till it reaches the moun- tains of Honan ffff jf and Shansi ill ®, that is to say to near- ly the North of Honan Fu J^ |i jf . After having taken a

26 SECTION I. THE NORTHEKN REGION.

northerly direction, the Hwangho ^ |pf is forced Eastwards by the mountain range, which forms the Southern limit of Mongolia. Soon again the table-land of Shansi [Ij ^ compels it to flow Southwards, until meeting the Ts'in-ling ^ -^ chain, it is obli- ged to force a passage for its waters between the mountain and the Shansi [Ij If plateau. In this part of its course, up to its Southward bend, it attains a width of over 425 yards, becomes occasionally navigable, and is not obstructed in its channel as it was previously. In its bend from the N. of the Ordos country, it has changed its course several times, and left its former bed, which is covered with a rich layer of alluvion and produces a plentiful harvest.

As it advances from N. to S., it skirts the Shansi \[\ ^ Province, which it separates from the Ordos country and from Shensi ^ H- It is from this latter Province that it receives its principal tributary, the beautiful and turgid Wei-ho ^ Jpf. "We shall have occasion to speak of it, when describing Shensi ^ '^. Somewhat higher up, but on the left bank, it receives the Fen-ho -^ Jpf, the great river of Shansi iJj ]g. It runs afterwards along the Hwa-shan |^ [jj mountains, and follows the direction of the Weiho f| fpf, hemmed in between two cliffs of yellow earth. The loess held in suspension by its waters im- parts to them a yellow hue. Thus far, its bed is pretty high, almost 1,300 feet above the sea-level.

3° Eiower Course. — On leaving the T'ungkwan Pass -[^ H, the river enters the lowlands. Henceforward it takes suc- cessively a twofold direction : W. to E. till it reaches a little to the N. of K'aifung Pu H ^ ;j^, when it swerves from South- West to North-East, and pursues this direction till it enters the Gulf of Ohihli jg ^. In its first part, it divides Shansi []j ■g' from Honan ^ ^, then bisects the Northern extremity of Ho- nan : in its second part, it runs along the great plain, North- West of Shantung [Jj ;^. Throughout its whole lower course, its waters run through the plain. Here it is most to be dreaded, because the mud and sand carried down by its stream, conti- nually raise the bed of the river, which is several yards above the level of the surrounding country.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWAN(J-HO. 27

To hinder its overflowing, embanlcments have had to be raised. These hem it in, some nearer, others farther, ranging one behind another at variable distances. In this manner, if one gives way, another prevents the inundation. In its present state, the work is still very inefficient, the dikes being weak, and cons- tructed with materials that offer little resistance. The mud and sand, which frequently obstruct the Hwang-ho, render it also very difficult of navigation. The only portion Avhere it can be availed of, is to the N. of Honan jpj ^, and in the last 25 miles of its course. But even in this part, a shoal prevents junks drawing more than 6 ft. of water from passing.

From the T'ungkwan -Jg ^ bend, ferry-boats ply on the river, and take from one side to the other thousands of travellers, carts, animals, and a vast quantity of general merchandise. In crossing, the oar or sail is ured, or even if a suitable place is chosen a long pole. In Summer when the waters are swollen, the current renders the passage difficult; in Winter on the con- trary, water is lacking, and there is danger of running aground. Throughout all this part, the Hwang-ho ^ fpj receives no important tributary. The only ones needing special mention are : the Ijoh-hM jig^J^, flowing into it from the right, through Honan fpf ^; and the Tsfin-ho ^jj, fpj, which rises in the Shansi ^ ^ plateau.

Variations in its Course. — The Hwang-ho ^ Ji^ has not kept regularly to its present course. In the past it has changed many a time across the vast North-Eastern plain. Frequently it has run to the N. or to the S. of the Shantung [Ij "^ mountains, flowing in turn, either into the Gulf of Chihii ]i[ ^ or into the Yellow Sea.

Formerly it followed the bed of the lower course of the Peh-ho Q ^pj. Its last important deviation dates from 1851. Previously to this, it flowed towards the South, in the Northern part of Kiangsu ft j^, Avhence it emptied itself into the Yellow sea. In that year, its dikes gave way to the N. E. of K'aifung Fu W^I^M- Foi" *wo years, its course varied considerably, and finally leaving the South, it definitively followed the bed of the Tsi-ho ^

28

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Ifff, a river so far of little importance. Since then its embankments have burst several times. In 1877, it inundated an immense region, and caused the death of a million of people. In 1898, 1,500 villages to the N.E. of Tsinan Fu ^ '^ jj^, and a still larger region to the S.E. of the same town, experienced its ravages. These changes of bed and the terrible inundations that followed, have deserved for it the name of "Cliinafs sorrow," "the Ungo- vernable," "tJie Scourge of the sons of Ban?', all of which are indeed but too well merited. The Mongols call it Raratnuren (black river). The name "Hwang-ho" (^ fpf yellow river), has been given it, becau- se of the yellow land which it traverses, and which imparts to its waters a yellow tinge.

Neither along its middle or lower course, is there any important city built on its banks. Such a terrible neighbour is always dreaded and therefore avoided with the greatest care.

Flow. — The flow of the Hwang-ho ^ jpp varies much with the season. It has been reckoned to be a little over 4,000 cubic yards per second, in its middle portion, near Tsinan Fu (Shan- tung iJj ^) The flow is three times greater in the flood season. It is on the whole relatively small for such a great river, but this is accounted for by the waste of the water that filters through the embankments or escapes through other causes. The mud and sand, which it unceasingly deposits in the Gulf of Chihii [i;^, constantly lessen the depth of this latter, and form there new alluvial lands. Opposite the former mouth of the river (1851) it can be seen what great quantity of sediment it carries in its waters.

TUe Great Wall. (10,000 li rampart Ij M :R- i^ Wan- licli'aug CU'dng). — The great Wall extends along the Northern Provinces, from Chihii ji[ ^ to Kansu -^ ^, skirting them all to the N. ; wo shall therefore describe it briefly

Sketch, showing the

various changes in the course of the

Hwang-ho.

CHAPTER I. \ALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OP THE HWANG-HO. 29

here. It was built by Shih Bivangti i^ ^ ^ (246-209 B. C), of the Ts'in ^ dj^nasty, as a means of defence against the Hun tribes, arid was repaired under the reign of Hsientsung ,^^ (1465-1487 A. D.), of the Ming PJ dynasty. In a straight line it is about 1,300 English miles in length, and with ils windings, over hilly districts and mountains, some exceeding 4000 feet high, it measures a distance of 1,500 miles. lis height varies from 15 to 30 feet. At intervals of 200, yards, are towers some 40 feet high. It is still in a fair state of pre- servation, except on the Western slope, where it has in some places entirely crumbled, this part being principally faced with yellow earth. On the Eastern side, the bricks with which it has been constructed, have enabled it to resist better. It attains in this latter part, a thickness of over 20 feet at its base, and is fully 12 feet wide at its summit. The Great Wall has nowadays little military importance, and serves only as a geographical boundary. The passes are the only places where military posts are main- tained. The most important of these are the following : the Slianhaiku-an Pass ([Ijf^l^ mountain and sea Pass or Barrier) at the Eastern extremity; — the KaZgan Pass (Changkia k'ow MM 0) at theN. W. of Chihli g,^; — the Tinmen Pass (goose pass ^ P^) at the Jv. of Shansi llj ■§ ; — the Kiayu Pass (Kiayii kwan ^({? |^), at the ext;reme West leading to Barkul. It is noteworthy that in speaking of China, one meets frequently with such expressions as "within the Great Wall" (Kwan-nei §§^); and "beyond the Great Wall" (K'ow-wai P^|>), meaning the region or country on the outer side.

A few other Particulars concerning tlie IVortlierii Region. — We will but mention them here, as they are to be described further on.

Tlie Grand Canal (jg |jif Ymn-lio. Transport river) con- nects the basins of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj and Yangtze ^ ^ in their lower Course.

The JPeking-Blankow Railway will also connect Chihli jj ^, Honan fij ^, Hupeh jjjfl i^ and the whole Western region.

30

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

while the line from Pehimg to Maneh/u/ria will henceforward facilitate communications with Europe,

The great highway, which crosses Shansi |lj 'g, and con- tinues through Shensi |^ 'g and Kansu "^ ^, connects the Northern Region with Central Asia, while that of Kalgan and several others, starting from the Northern Provinces, lead into Mongolia.

flbr fwrther details, see : section V. ch IV. Highways of communication).

Among the minereil wealth of the N., the principal is pit- coat. It abounds chiefly in Shansi |J[j "g, Shensi p|J 'g. Shan- tung ilj ^ and Honan |^ ^. Iron is also found extensively [See : Section V. ch IV. Mining and Industry).

Eeferences

Gundry. — China present and past. Lon- don, 1895 (ch. 15, the Hwang-ho, p. 413 sq.)-

Ney Elias. — (Journal of the Geog. Soo. 1870. Feb. — On the Hwang-ho).

RonlTart. — The Yellow river, 1898.

nfetchnikofi*. — La civilisation et les grands fleuves historiques. (o. XI. Le Hoang-ho et le Yang-tse-kiang) Paris, 1889.

Imbault Huart. — Une excursion a la

grande muraiUe de Chine (Magasin

pittoresque. 1888). Iiarrien. — La grande muraUle de la Chi- ne (Revue d'Bxtreme Orient. 1885). Martin. — La grande muraille de la Chine

(Revue scientifiq. 1891). William&on. — Journey in North China.

London, 1870. China : Imperial maritime customs. I. —

Statistical series : N° 6. Decennial reports.

1892-1901. Shang-hai, 1904.

CHAPTER 11.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER HWANG-HO

(KANSU t M AND SHENSI ^ W)-

The Provinces of Kansu "^ ^' and Shensi ]^ If, are both governed by the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of Shen-Kan

These two Provinces are traversed from N. W. to S.E. by spurs of the K'uenlun ^ ^ range, and are for the greater part mountainous. Loess covers all the Northern part of Shensi, and the North-Eastern part of Kansu. To the N. of both, lie the elevated buttress-ridges of the Mongolian table-land. Influenced thereby, their climate is dry and very cold towards the N., while it grows milder and enjoys more rain in the S., this part being included in the basin of the Yangtze ^ ^. Highways of com- munication are difficult from one Province to another, and even within the same Province, should one wish to travel from N. to S. or in the contrary direction.

Another remark not to be forgotten, and which applies equally to the aforesaid Provinces. Fifty years ago, they were by far richer, and more populous than at the present day. The reason is, because they have been overrun and laid waste by a twofold rebellion. The first, that of the T'aipHngs ^ 2!^, which lasted from 1830 to 1864^ and affected especially the Yangtze region, in the South. The second, still more disastrous, devastated the whole of the A'.. This was the Mahomedan revolt, which broke out there in 1861, and was completely put down only in 1878, after the taking of Khotan, the last stronghold of the rebels. The number of those who were then killed in the two Provinces, is estimated to be about 10,000,000. It was chiefly through the agency of Tso Tsungt'ang ^ ^ ^, that order was established.

32 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

1". Kansu #

Avea. — 125,483 square miles. In this respect, it is the third province of China, being surpassed only by Szechw'an Pg }\\ and Yiinnan ^ ^.

Population. — 10, 386,000, thus giving 82 persons per square mile. Kwangsi ^ 'g alone is less thinly inhabited.

STanie. — It is so called from two of its principal cities : Kanchow Fu -^ j'|'| )^ and 8u Chow '^ >)\\. Boundaries. — On the N. — Mongolia,

W. — Sinkiang -^r ^ and Tibet, S. — Szechw'an gg j||, E. — Shensi ^ |g.

Ca;?iial. — LANCHOW FV ^ -M-] ;j^, situated almost in the centre of the Province, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^fpj. Otiier Prefectural Cities. — These are 7 in number : On the left batik of the Hwang-TiO ^ i^, shirting the Northern frontier, and proceeding from W. to E. :

1° Kanchow Pu t #1 Jk, 2° Leangchow Fu ilC #1 if, 3° Ninghsia Fu ® H ;f . Between Ku-Jcu If or and Lanchow Ihi :

4° Sining Fu n^M. On the right banJc, of the Hwang-Jio, going from N.E. to S.W. :

5» K'ingyang Yvl^WjM, 6" P'ingleang Fu ^p rS fliF, 7" Kungch'ang Fu |^ S fl?F. There are also 6 independent Chow >}^ cities : Knyuen Chow ^]$.'}\\, King Chow ■Jgffl, Kiai Chow [!^jH"|, TsHn Chow ^ jW , Su Chow ^ >)^ , Ngansi Chow ^ ^ j^ , and one inde- pendent T'ing H City : Hwap'ingchw'an T'ing -f^ 2]i j|| ^. (Independent Chows and T'ings, closely resemble Prefectural cities, although of the 2"-^ and 3^^ order. We shall therefore place them generally after the Fu }^ cities, or Prefectures of the first order.)

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 33

Aspect and Characteristics. — The immense course of the Hwang- ho ^fp[ runs through the Province from S.W. to N.E., making headway with great difficulty, its bed strewn with rocks, and navigable only from the spot where it touches on Mongolia. On its left, are long chains of mountains, sloping froyn N. W. to S.E. and reaching an elevation of 6^500 to 20^000 ft. On the light, towards the N., is an immense loess plateau, into which the Wei-ho ^ ^ and its tributaries have cut deep channels. To the South, are 2 parallel ranges, prolongation of the K'uenlun Ml ^1 ^^'^ following the same direction as the mountains on the left bank. The population swarms towards the centre, in the environs of Lanchow Fu ^ ^I ^, and to the South. Another chain, bordered by important cities, rises towards the N., near the Great Wall. The climate, dry and cold in the N., tones down as one advances to the S., where it becomes mild and rainy. Being an important place of transit, Kansu "^ "^ lacks neither mineral nor agricultural resources and may subsequently become prosperous and- densely populated as in former times.

Geological constitution. — Kansu is sandy in its Northern part, schistous and granitic in its mountain chains, which are a prolongation of the K'uenlun range. It is also for the most part, especially in the E., covered over with rich loess terraces which the inhabitants excavate for dwelling purposes. In several sandy plains, as at Ninghsia Fu, Lanchow Fu and Su Chow, a well organised system of irrigation makes the soil yield splendid harvests.

Orograpliy. — To the 2f.W. 3 principal chains, running in the same direction, N. W. to S.E.. They continue a little on the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^ :j'pj, and fall gradually in elevation from N.W. to S.E.. They are the prolongation of the Bastem Jifuenlun ^ ^ range, and are sometimes called the Nanrshan ^ jlj mountains (not to be confounded with the Nan- shan range on the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^). These chains are:

To the N. of the highway leading from Leangchow Fu \^ ^ }^ to Kanchow Fu "^ ')^ M : the Shantan |lj ^ mountains.

To the S. of the same highway, the JRichthofen or T'ien- shan (celestial mountains 5^ jlj) mountains. This chain which rises in the N.W. to an elevation of over 20,000 ft, is crossed with difficulty. Several of its peaks are snow-clad, and covered with glaciers the whole year round. The most important pass of

3

34

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION,

the N., that of Lagiobo, is nearly 10,000 ft high. From its North- Eastern slopes run down, in Spring and Summer, torrents which give fertility to the country.

Further to the South, between the Hwang-ho ^ |pf and the Ta- t'ung-ho^jj^, are the Ta;tfwng ^ jj mowntains, an irregular mass, but better watered and covered with woods and forests on its sides and valleys.

Qwite to the S., two principal chains, the more Northern of which is the Slh'ing-shan "g f^ [Jj , inter- sected in its centre by the T'ao-

ho -^^ ^; the other further to the

S. is the Min-sJiMn (jg [Ij, called

also the JOao-ling ^ -^ by the

natives.

These two chains run in the

same direction, from W. to E..

They are difficult to cross , and reach

an elevation of 6,500 to 10,000 ft.

Their summits are rather barren,

andoneofthem,theShagolomoun- s =s d

O O o

tain in the extreme South, even S, ■= S,

S " ==

exceeds this elevation.

To the IFcs«, between the Sik'ing-shan '^ f^ [Ij, and the Hwang-ho ^ J^f, is an irregular mass of mountains and hills. The road however from Singan Fu 'g' ^ ^ (Shensi ^c ^g) to Lan- chow Fu^jl'l'l)^ crosses it by passes which reach nearly 10,000 ft. The whole is a mountainous region terminating in the N. by a great table-land of loess with deep gorges.

To the N.B. is the continuation of the Richthofen mountains sloping North-Eastwards, while the Niulfn-ahan ^ :^ jlj, stands

S

•s

o

CO

■43'

ta O

a

u

•*3 o

S

en

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 35

out opposite the Alashan (Holan-shan ^ |B llj), and exceeds even 10,000 ft in height. These two chains hem in the Hwang-ho ^ fpf, as it issues from Kansu -y* ;^, while a long and very rich plain lies to its left.

With the exception of a few plains to the North, the Province of Kansu is therefore very mountainous.

Climate. — During the long Winter months, Kansu is covered with snow and ice ; all the rivers are frozen over, and the inhabitants though clad in skins, protect themselves with difficulty from the cold. A bleak wind also blows from the table- land of Mongolia. In Summer, the thermometer rises at times to 104 degrees P.. At this period, vegetation is luxuriant, and crops grow with great rapidity. An exception however must be made for the South, which is very wet, owing to the rain-laden clouds that are wafted up from the same direction. In some valleys, the climate there is so mild, that the fruits of Southern China come to maturity, as the medlar or p'ip'a and the persimmon.

Bydrograpliy. — The greater part of Kansu "^^ is watered by the Hwang-ho ^ JpJ and its tributaries. We have already described this river (see ch. I). Its chief tributaries in Kansu •^ ^ are the following:

On the left bank, and flowing from the Southern side of the Richthofen chain and the Tat'ung ;^ jj ll| mountains, is the Slning-ho ^ ^ ^, to which the Vtan-muren or Ta'^ung-ho ^ jg Jfif joins its waters. (A vast number of torrents and rivers water the whole region of the Tat'ung ;^ jj llj mountains).

On the right bctnk, its principal tributary descends from the Sik'ing g ^ mountains, which it crosses. It is called the OP'ao-ho ;^^ fpf, a long and winding stream, which empties its waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fp[, a little beyond Lanchow Fu M iW }^. On this bank, many other rivers flow into it from the Sik'ing mountains, from the hilly region of the E. and from the table-land of the N.E..

In their South-Eastern portions, these two latter regions are watered by the Welrho Jf fpf and its tributaries. (For the Wei-ho, see the description of Shensi.)

The extreme S. is watered by the Kialing-lciang ^ ^ ^, which flows almost immediately into Szechw'an pg j||, and traverses the whole N.E. of the Province before emptying itself into the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fL-

In the N.W., skirting the Richthofen mountains, is the Hei- iio H fpf, a water course of little importance save in the Sum-

36 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

mer season, when it is swollen by the torrents which descend from these lofty snow-capped mountains. Its waters, mingled with those of the EaMngol, flow into a lake on the table-land of Mongolia.

Fauna and Flora. — Kansu has remained one of the wildest regions of China, on account of its isolation, its severe climate, and the difficulty of its means of commu- nication. A great number of tigers, leopai:ds, bears, wild boars, wolves and foxes, are accordingly found there, as well as eagles and vultures. Game is plentiful. Throughout the whole of the moist and wooded region of the S.E., numerous and various kinds of birds abound. The flora of aU this region, as well as that of the Tat'ung mountains is also very rich : the pine, birch and beech thrive at the bottom of the valleys and on the mountain sides. Higher up is found the rhododendron or rose- bay, and iiocks of sheep and goats are reared on the slopes.

Agricultural Wealtb. — Although the elevation and steep slope of the mountains render cultivation difficult throughout a great part of Kansu, in other places, as at Ninghsla Pu ^ J }^, Lanchow Fu ^ ^ fl^, Kanchow Fu -g" jfl jjj and Su Chow '^ ^H, abundant crops are found : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian-corn and even rice. In several parts, there are even two harvests annually. The cultivation of rhubarb, formerly thriving, has nowadays much diminished. On the other hand the cultiva- tion of the poppy has increased, and tends to become universal. Even in the Han-ti (dry lands ^ J^), which the people cover with stones and shingle to maintain them moist, the poppy is largely cultivated, as also the water melon and the common melon.

Fruit is the great wealth of the region. Besides the jujube- tree found almost everywhere, apples, pears, apricots, walnuts, plums, strawberries and myrtles abound.

Mineral Wealth. — So far, it is but little known. Ex- tensive coal-fields exist at the N.B. and E., and especially in the vicinity of Kungch'ang Fu ^ ^ jj^. Iron-ore, gold, silver, and petroleum are also found.

Population. — The population of Kansu is chiefly composed of Chinese, a great number of whom are Mussulmans. The country surrounding Ninghsia Fu is largely inhabited by Mongols. They are likewise found throughout the whole of the N. W. and in the neighbourhood of Sining Fu. In this latter region there are also many Tanguts or Pmi-tee and inhabitants of Korth-Eastern Tibet. In the S. a great number of immigrants from Szechw'an have settled down.

The population swarms especially in the S. where it is very dense, as also towards the centre and E.. — The people of the S. are gentler and more cultured than those of the N., but the latter are hardier. They are for a great part illiterate.

IJanguage. — CAmese is spoken throughout the greater part of the Province, save in the regions inhabited by the Mongols and Tanguts. Turkish does not begin to be spoken until further W., in Chinese Turkestan.

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 37

Cities and principal Centres. — LANCHOW FU^^ j'H jiff > population, 500,000.

Capital city of the Province, and residence of the Viceroy of Shenkan ^c -^^ is a very commercial city. Its environs are well cultivated : gardens, orchards, tobacco-plantations, poppy- fields etc.... Corn is imported from Sining Fu W ff iffi ^'^^ land near Lanchow Fu being considered too valuable to culti- vate it thereon. A bridge of boats is established every Summer over the Hwang-ho^jpf, instead of the ice which has then melted.

Sining Fu 'g ^ j^ at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet, and with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, has important commercial relations with Tibet. The Governor-general of Ku-ku Nor has his residence there. The town was recaptured from the rebels only in 1872.

Ningltsia Fu ^^ jff, population, 12,000, — laid waste by the Mahomedan insurrection, but rising slowly from its ruins. The enterprising spirit of the Mussulmans has seized upon all the sources of gain which exist in the country. The city is situated in a vast plain, 125 miles in length. It is well watered by a skilful network of canals, abounds in fields of rice, corn and poppies, and is studded with numerous villages nestling amidst luxuriant clusters of trees. Unfortunately, it is ill protected from the inundations of the Hwang-ho ^ jpf, which has again devastated it in the year 1904.

I.eangchow Fu-^"^,^ )^, population, 200,000.— The largest agglomeration of the Province after Lanchow Fu U >)^ }^. The city stands at an elevation of over 6,000 ft.

Kanchow Fu ^' jifl ^. — A wretched town^ built upon moving sand. Its importance is especially due to its position upon a frequented route.

8u Chow^ j^\, — in the North- Western extremity ofKansu, and in the W. of perhaps the most fertile region of China. In Spring and Summer it abounds with rice, wheat, millet, maize, melons... jujubes, pears, peaches.

KHngyang Fri ^ pf iff — had formerly 300,000 inhabitants, but possesses now only one unimportant street.

38 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Among the other towns may be mentioned; Chungwei hsieit 4* ^Mf ^ commercial place where the Hwang-ho ^ ^ begins to be navigable; — Ts'in Chow^)^, 150,000 inhabitants, to the S.E. of Kungch'ang Fu ^^}^. It is perhaps the most impor- tant market place of the Province after Lanchow Fu fg j^ }^.

KunOmm, to the 8. W. of Sining Fu ® ^ )i^, is an exten- sive lamasery, possessing a living Buddha. People come there from afar on pilgrimage.

Industry and Commerce. — These are of no great importance. Lanchow Fu Wi'MM '^ ^^^ o^^y remarkable centre of industry, and manufactures chiefly cloth. The principal eocsport articles are: opium, tobacco, furs, musk, wool and medicinal plants. The imports are stuffs and salt.

Higbways of communication. — Communication is very difficult except by the few roads that cross the Province. Carts may be used on them. Outside these ways nearly all traffic is carried on upon the backs of men, the roads being too difficult even for animals. The Hwang-ho ^ JpT is not really navigable until below Chungwei hsien 4* ^ IPi' although rafts are employed elsewhere. The principcU roads are:

1" The road from Singan Fu 'g^^ (Shensi ^"g) to Lan- chow Fu BB;H'l^- This follows the valley of the King-ho ^ Jpf, passing by P'ingleang Fu ^ \% /j^, and continues beyond by Sining Fu 'g ^ jj^ as far as Tibet. (Another road leads from Singan Fu (Shensi) to Lanchow Fu^ passing more to the S. by Ts'inchow Fu ^ jH-j }^. The way is very difficult.)

2° The road from Mnghsia Fu^ ^ )^ to Su Ohoiv -^ >H-| . This passes by Leangchow Fu \%^^^ and Kanchow Fu 'H'jI'H^i and continues beyond into Sinkiang 5||f |g.

3" A third road starts from Lanchow Fu ^ jM"] )j^, skirts the Hwang-ho and joins the preceding.

4" The road leading /r-om ZancJiow Fu^^^ to Szechw'an pg ]\\, and passing by Minchow |I|g >y^ (Kungch'ang Fu ^ g H^).

Difficulty of conveyance and communication is the greatest hindrance to the development of Kansu -^ ^^

Note. — Kansu ■^^, formerly made only one Provinee with Sinkiang ^ H, but was separated from it in 1882.

Chapter ii. shensi. 39

2° . Shensi 1?^' g

Area : — 75,290 square miles.

Population : — 8,450,000, or 112 per square mile. Name : — It is so called because this Province is situated to the "West of the famous T'ungkwan ff |g pass. Shensi means to the "West of the Pass." Boundaries. — On the

N. — The Ordos plateau, which i§ the Southern extension of the Mongolian table-land. Shensi is separated from the Ordos country by a portion of the Great WaU, W. - Kansu -y- f,

S. — Szechw'an 0 j|| and Hupeh ^ ^, E. — Honan ^ '^ and Shansi ilj ^. The Hwang-ho ^ fpj separates it from this latter Province. Capital. — SnfGAN JFXr g ^ jjjf , near the right bank of the Wei-ho f| }pj and almost in the centre of the Province, as Lanchow Fu ^ ijj^ jjf in Kansu -^ ■^.

Ottaer Prefectures. — These are 6 in number : Along the Wei-7io fg jpj, proceeding from W. to E.: 1° Pmigsiaiig Vuam!^, 2° T'lmgcliow Pu m #1 flf. To the N. of the Wei-ho, the first in the extreme N., the second mid-way between the Great Wall and the "Wei-ho f| fpj : 3° Yuling Fn Ml U: if , 4° Yenngan Pn 5i S ^. To the S. of the TsHrtrling ^ -^ mountains and along the Han-ho -^ jpf, as it runs Eastwards : 5° Hanclnmg Yu^,^ M, 6° Hsingngan Fu R 3f ^. There are also in Shensi |^ U 5 independent Chows >I'|'| :

Shang Chow ^ >j^, IL'ien Chow ^ >)\\, Ping Chow ff, >yi\, Fu Chow j|]5 ^•H, Soeiteh Chow ^ f* >)W.

Aspect and Cliaracterlstlcs. — The country is exactly divided into 2 parts by a ■well-marked chain of mountains which may be- crossed only with difficulty at its two extremities. All

40 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

activity is centered upon the 2 rivers, which flow one on theN., and the other through the S. The 2 valleys, especially the Northern one, afford important passages to those travelling West- ward. On the N. of the Wei-ho f^ fpj a long plateau of yellow land rises gradually towards the N. . To the S. of the Wei-ho and especially of the T'sin-ling ^ -^ mountainSj the yellow earth disappears.

Geological constitution. — The Ts'in ling mountains are composed of granite, schist, limestone rock and sand-stone ; the granite however predominates. On both sides extends an immense layer of quaternary strata, which continues towards the N. of the Wei-ho under the form of loess. To the S. of the Han-ho it takes the shape of schist, sand-stone and the limestone rocks of Kiulung.

Orography. — It is easy to remember and is most char- acteristic.

On the y. of the Wei-ho f^ jjij' exists an extensive platoau of loess, which rises from the S.E. towards the N.W. and is more and more furrowed by ravines as one moves away from the 8.E.. This plateau terminates on the North side in a series of chains which support the Ordos plateau, and rises on the S. to an elevation of more than 4,000 ft.

On the South of the Wei-ho, rises the massive chain of the Ts'in-limff ^ ^ mountains, a prolongation of the lifiietUun, g, -^ range. It runs from W. to E., reaching in height 9,000 ft, which it even surpasses in several places. One of the most celebrated summits, which stands out a little to the W. , is the Tapeh-sJuin :^ ^ llj with an altitude of 11,500 ft. With its steep rocks, perpendicular paths, its torrents and gloOmy forests, the Ts'in-ling ^ .^ is crossed with great difficulty. Two passes are easier of access, one to the W., the other on the E.. The Northern slope is the steepest and descends quite abruptly upon the Wei-ho f| fjij^, the other inclines gradually towards the Han-ho ^^. Richthofen compares the Ts'in-ling to a heavy bar applied slantwise upon a wrinkled cloth with parallel folds, and which would then be moved in a direction perpendicular to its axis, till the folds deviated completely from the point of contact.

On the South of the Han-ho ^ ]pj originates the Kiulung

CHAPTER n. SHKNSI. 41

■Jlj fl chain. It is less massive than the Ts'in-Hng range, runs along the whole North-East of Szechw'an pg j|| and continues the Min-shuu |||g [[j of Kansu "^"^ Province. It attains more than 13,000 feet in height. A pass traverses its Northern extremity and connects through the Wuting 5£T pa^s, — [4,000 ft. high] — the upper valley of the Han-ho ^p^ with Szechw'an pg j||.

Climnte. — The climate is widely difEerent in the N. and in the S. of the Ts'in-ling.

Ill the N., it resembles that of the region of the Hwang-ho, with its dry cold, its dust, and its violent storms.

In the S., it is rather like that of Szechw'an without Northern or Southern winds, these being prevented from blowing by the two mountain ranges. From February to October, the sky is overcast and the atmosphere damp, while excessive heat prevaOs in Summer. The cold sets in only at the end of November. It is the fine season of the year.

Hydrograpby. — On the N'., the Wei-ho |^ jpf and numerous streams, running N.W. to S.E. All flow into the Hwang-ho ^ Jflf, which skirts the E. of the Province^ and is navigable only from the place where it receives the Fen-ho ^ ^ from Shansi llj ^. The most important of these rivers is the Loh-ho jf^^fpf. None however are navigable.

On the S., the Marv-ho ^ ^, which receives numerous torrents from the Ts'inling ^^ mountains, but is not navigable in Shensi. Till it leaves this Province, it runs through steep gorges where it is obstructed with rocks and rapids. Junks of small tonnage avail themselves of the flood season to travel to Hanchung Fu ]g tfi ^ (For^the Han-ho ^ 1%, see section II, ch. III.)

The Wei-ho j^ JpJ'. The Wei-ho is the principal tributary of the Hwang-ho ^ p^. Its sources are in Kansu -^ ^, near the mining region known as Kungch'ang Fu ^^^. It runs like all its affluents on the left bank — these are the most numerous and important — through the loess plateau of the N., in which it cuts deep channels. These beds diminish in depth as they advance towards the S.E.. As it enters Shensi ^ 0> the Wei-ho \^ fpj' runs at a depth of 600 feet, amidst those towering stratified cliffs so characteristic of the loess region. It then widens and swerves gradually from the loess land. It is navigable after Hsingp'ing hsien ^ ^ ^. Henceforward up to the bend of

42 SECTION t. TitE NORTHERN REGION.

the Hwang-ho ^ |pf, near T'ung-kwan yf p, boats of shallow draught ply on its waters^ for although it is pretty wide in this place, it never runs deep. — Its chief tributary is the King-ho ^ }pj^, an important river, which with its affluents, waters the whole North-Eastern part of Kansu ^^ ^.

Fauna and Flora. — I'hese differ completely in Northern and Southern Shensi, the ridge of the Ts'in-ling constituting almost the dividing line. In the N. the fauna and flora are those of the Hwaug-ho; in the S. those of the Yangtze (See Preliminary Notions : fauna and flora, p. 16, 17). Wild animals are less numerous than in Kansu, though they are extensively met with on the Northern loess plateau and in the Ts'in-ling. Aquatic birds teem in the valley of the Wei-ho ; the wild goose, heron, ibis, and snipe.

Agrlciiltnral Wealth. — Agricultural products abound in the 2 plains of the Wei-ho f^ ^ and of the Han-ho j^ fpj", as well as on the loess plateau, wherever it can be tilled. In certain parts of the Wei-ho plain^ rice and cotton are cultiva- ted, and there are 2 harvests every year, that of Spring yielding corn, and that of Summer, cotton. Elsewhere, the crops raised are those peculiar to the Northern region : barley, pulse, peas, lucerne, hemp, tobacco and Indian-corn. The valley of the upper Han-ho ^ ^ perhaps much richer, produces besides various fruits, abundant crops of corn, cotton and tobacco. Silk is manufactured, and the mulberry, palm, bamboo and even orange -tree are found there in abundance. Throughout the whole Province, the cultivation of the poppy is the all-absorbing pursuit of the inhabitants.

Mineral Wealtli. — The Province is exceedingly rich in coal mines but they are little worked. Iron, salt of inferior quality (towards the N.), quartz veined with gold, nickel and magnetite (in the upper valley of the Han-ho ^ JpJ) are also found. Stones for building (marble, granite, and porphyry) abound, especially in the Ts'in-ling ^ ^ mountains.

Population. — The population is very dense in the two valleys and becomes thinner as one travels away from these two centres. The people are largely agiven to agriculture. As in Shansi, many skilful bankers are nevertheless found among them. The alien element is scanty: Mongols (in the N.),3zeohw'an and Hupeh immigrants(m the S.).

Like Kansu, though for a shorter period, Sheusi suif ered exceedingly from the two rebellions: that of the T'aijj'ings to the S. of the Ts'in-ling; and that oi the MiissuJman.i . to theN.. The city of Singan Fu was almost the only one which held out in the North.

Ijang'uage. — It is only io the N. that a little Mongol is heard. Everywhere else. Mandarin is the common tongue.

CHAPTER II. SHENSI. 43

Towns and chief Centres.

In Northern Shensi ^ ^ :

SINGAN FV^^^, a few miles to the S. of the Wei-ho, at an elevation of 1, 600 feet. — Population, about 1, 000, 000. It is the capital and one of the most important cities of Shensi, perhaps even of all China, not only because of its historical remi- niscences, but also because of its site, the number of its inhabi- tants and its wealth. Singan Fu or a neighbouring city has been the capital of China under several dynasties. It acquired its greatest celebrity especially during the T'ang § dynasty. It was then called Siking ("g^ Western Capital). Inl900, when the Boxer insurrection broke out, the Court withdrew there for a time. A short distance from it, towards the E., the Annals of the Empire were burnt under Shih Hwang-ti ^^ ^^ (246-209. B. C). The Mussulmans who are said to have arrived there about the VIII"" cen- tury, occupy quite extensive quarters and have a famous mosque. Not far from the city, towards the W., is found a slab bearing date from the VIII''^ century, and testifying that the Nestorians, an heretical christian sect, were established there at that time. A cele- brated museum, called the Pei-lin {^^ forest of slabs or stone- tablets) is rich with the remnants of ancient civilisation. The city has its Tartar quarter, which is surrounded by a high wall. In the centre of the town there is a large agglomeration of petty shop- keepers. The Eastern suburbs is a very populous and rich quarter where cloth, silks, porcelain, foreign-made articles and iron are stored. In the year 1899, a cotton-mill was established within the city.

Hsienyang hsien ^ |^^ This town is not far from Signan Fu, and owes its importance to its being the terminus of naviga- tion on the Wei-ho ^JPJ", hence great traffic is carried on there.

T'nnffchow lu ^ ^ /ff- — On the Loh-ho j?§ jpj.

OCwnghwan hsien \%^ ^ H^. — At the bend of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj. It is rather a garrison town than a commercial place, and owes its importance chiefly to its position which borders on the Western regions.

44 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Hwayinmiao ^ j^ ^. — This is a pilgrim resort and has a famous shrine. It is here that people start when making the ascent of the Hwa-shan ^ (J[j, one of the 5 sacred mountains of China.

Fungsiang Fu]^^f^. — It is picturesquely situated upon a high loess terrace and on the Kansu "^ ^ road which follows the course of the Wei-ho \^ jpf.

Ting Chotv 0 j^. — On the King-ho ^ f^. It is renowned for its excellent fruit.

TUlin Fu ^^}^. — In the extreme N.. A garrison town and important market place for furs.

In Southern Shensi :

Hanehung Fu '^ fp }^, on the banks of the Han-ho and at an elevation of 1,600 ft, like Singan Fu 'g ^ j^, — population 80,000. — It is a large commercial city and important centre in the midst of a plain over 90 miles in length and from 25 to 40 miles wide.

Hsingngan Fu $^ ^ }^- — A more important commercial centre than Hanehung Fu. Commerce is carried on with Sze- chw'an 0 J||, Kansu -^ '^ and Southern Shensi ^ 'g.

Industry and Commerce. — These are more developed than in Kansu "^ ^, but are however in a rather backward state. Besides the somewhat industrial centre of Singan Fu '^ ^ ji^, a certain number of towns exist along the lower Wei-ho fm Jpfi which engage in special branches of industry : T'ungkwan hsien -'(g ^ ff,, tin-ware; Hwayinmiao ^ I^ Jg, straw-shoes; Ch'ihshui ff: 7jC, incense sticks and bamboo articles ; Weinan hsien f| '^ ||,, a large coal-mart....

To the S., Sihsiang hsien jg ^ ff„ S.E. of Hanehung Fu ^ f|» J^, and famous for its manufacture of gum.

Shensi |^ ^ imports silks from Chfikiang ^ ^ and Sze- chw'an pg j||, tea from Hupeh j^ j^ and Honan jjj^ ^, and sugar from Szechw'an ^)]\. It exports opium, skins and furs. Besides it is a place of transit for all goods coming from Tibet and Central Asia, or going to these two regions.

CHAPTER II, SHENSI. 45

Shensi holds perhaps the first rank for the varnish-tree which supplies varnish and vegetable tallow.

Higliways of comiuunication. — Two roads connect Si- ngan Fu 'g^^ with iMnchoiv Fu ^ ')]] }^ (Kansu -y-;§[). The most important of these is the Northern one, passing by P'ing- leang Fu ^ J^ ^ (Kansu). It is a very beautiful road, and was formerly bordered with trees like French boulevards. It was constructed by Tso Tsungt'ang 25: ^ ^, the General who put down the Mussulman rebellion. Besides these 2 roads, three other important highways deserve special mention.

1*'. The road leading from Singan Fu "^^J^ to T'utig- Ttwan hsteii \^^^^- At this latter place, it branches off into two, one going at the S. of the Hwang-ho ^ ^ to Honan ^ ^ ; the other, crossing Shansi [Ij 'g, following the course of the Fen-ho |^ fpj, and leading to Peking ;|t ^.

2''. The road connecting Singan Fw H ^ ^ with Sse- chw'an. This passes at the Western extremity of the Ts'in-ling ^•^, over the T'iensha-ling Ji^^ pass, (3,300 ft. above the Wei-ho, and .5000 above the level of the sea) and at the North- Western extremity of the Kiulung ;^ m mountains over the Wuting ^ y pass (4000 ft. high). It is the famous road of the golden ox (Kinniu-tao ^4^ jM) built at such enormous expense. (According to local legends it was constructed in order to seize oxen on the mountain, as it was thought their fodder was changed into gold.)

3"*. The road connecting Singan Fu with Chang Chow ^ jH-J. This passes to the E. of the Tsin-ling, and connects the capital of Shensi ^ ^ with South-Western Honan Jp| ^ and the middle course of the Han-ho ^ fp)".

We have previously mentioned the navigable rivers.

Note. — Shensi is considered as the cradle of the Chinese race. It is here that it grew up, developed, and expanded to the E. and S.. Shensi commands all passes of the great Eastern plains leading to Central Asia, and thanks to the Sze- chw'an gg ^|| road, connects them easily with the whole South

46

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

of the Empire. The valley of the Wei-ho |(f Jjif is especially of unparalleled importance in the history of China.

References :

Rockhill. — The Land of the Lamas. New- York, 1891. (ch. I.).

Grenard. — Mission BcieutifiqnedelaHante Asie. Paris, 1898. (11" p. pp. 451-472, note on the ethnography of Eansu ; — I"* part. p. 371 sq., from Sining to Peking).

Prjevalsld. — Mongolie. Paris, 1880 (Ch. IX. Province of Eansu).

Potanine. — Expedition dans le Kan-sou. 1884-1887. St Petersbourg, 1891.

Von Kreitner. — Die Chinesische Pro- vinz Ean-su. 1888.

Journal des Missions Beiges de Mongolie et du Kan-sou, from 1892.

Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris, 1878. (ch. 13 to 19 : Kansu and Shensi).

la uw^aert. — Observations baromAtriques

faites au S. du Kan-sou. S' Petersbonrg,

1898. Richthofen. — Letters. Shang-hai, 1873.

(p. 70-74, Shensi; p. 96-110, Northern

Shensi; p. 111-114, Southern Shensi). David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.

(vol. I. oh. 7 to 17 and vol. II. ch. 18

and 19). Leprince-Ringuet. — (Tour du monde.

1902 p. 347 sq). Sven Uedln. — Travels. P. Havret. — La stele de Si-ngan fou.

Chang-hai, 1895 et 1897. Hogg. — Hsi-an (Singan). (Written for the

North-China Daily News).

CHAPTER III.

THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE HWANG-HO

(SHANSI ill W AND HONAN fpf ^.)

The Provinces of Shansi jlj 'g' and Honan JpJ ^ do not depend on the same Viceroy as Kanmi "^^ ■^ and ShenM ^ ■g|. Each of them has its own Governor.

If we study them in common, it is because the mountains of these 2 Provinces constitute a powerful barrier on the W. of the Great North-Eastern Plain. Both also hem in the Btvang-ho ^fpj' below its last great bend^ and before it enters the lowlands. Moreover, both abounding in coal and iron, are partly covered with loess or yellow earth, especially Shansi [^j '^. Finally they have been in former times the residence of the Emperor of China and the seat of the Capital.

The differences existing between them are very prominent :

Shansi ^ "gf is mountainous throughout; Bmian fpj" ^ only in part. Shansi is very rich in mineral wealth : Hrnian in agricultural products. Access to Shansi is difficult saue through a few highways; Honan on the contrary, except on the N.W., is rich in means of communication.

Both Provinces have suffered from the T'aip'ing -j^ ^ rebellion.

48 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RE&ION.

1°. Shansi \h g

Area. — 81,853 square miles.

?rnnibei* of Inhabitants. — 12,200,000, or 149 per square mile.

IVauie. — Shansi [Ij'gf signifies "Westof the Mountains." But what mountains are meant? Perhaps the peaks which bound on the E. the entire plateau of Shansi. It would however be more exact to say that they are the mountains on the W. of Chihli j|[ ^ as Shantung ^^ means E. of the same range, that is of the T'aihang-shan pic /}t ill-

Boundaries. — Shansi is bounded on the N. — By Mongolia,

W. — By the Ordos plateau (being part of Mon- golia -and Shensi ^ "g', S. — By Honan Jpf ^,

E. — By Chihli H ^. — The Hwang-ho ^ fpf fixes exactly the boundary line on the W. and S..

Capital city. — T'ATEVeN FTJ-ja]^^^, which is situated in the centre of the Province and on the left bank of the F6n- ho 19- fp[.

Otiier I»reffectnres or First class cities. They are 8. namely, To the N. of T'aiyuen Fu -j^ ^^ )^ :

1° Shohp'ing Fu jS? ¥ ^,

2° Tat'img Pu :*: 1^ jf ,

3° Ningwu Fu ffi ^ iff. To the S. of T'aiyilen Fu, and along the right hank of the Fen-ho -^ fpf as it runs into the Hwang-ho :

4° Pdncliow Pu n ffl M,

6° P'ingyang Pu ^ H )f ,

6" P'uchow Pu ii iHl flf . At the S.-Baatern eootr entity, proceeding from N. to S..

7° Lungan Pu iK S Mf ,

8» Tsehchow Pu m iHI flf . There are besides in Shansi ^J'g^ iO independent Chotvs ;M^ .•

CHAPTER III. SHANSI.

LOESS PLATEAU OF SHANSI ]ii J§. According to Richthofen.

50 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

T'ingtfmg Chow ^ ^ ^Hl, Bsin Chow ^ jHI, I*«* Chow -f^ jHI, Taateh Chow -^fg^I'H, Boh Chow ^^H, H»mi Chow ^^, Kiang CJmw ^ jH-l, Sih Chow H ^fj, Ts^in Chow l^ >]% Leao Chow ^ ;H'I.

Aspect and ctaaracterlstlcs. — Shansi is a plate&u ascen- ding in gradual terraces and intersected by mountain-ranges towards the N.. It has long monotonous ridges of yellow land and several alluvial plains very rich and fertile. There is great difficulty of com- munication. The people are industrious^ but the soil is rather poor, and this compels them to seek elsewhere the prosperity they lack at home. Coal and iron abound, but up to the present, the absence of good roads has rendered the working of the mines rather unprofitable. The Province has also a lengthy river, the FSn-ho ^ ^, which runs through its centre and develops there, more than in the other parts, wealth and prosperity, Such are in brief, the most striking features of Shansi.

Geological constitution. — A layer of limestone covers a rich bed of coal. Over the layer itself are found sand-stone and yellow earth. This latter reaches in the S. a depth of 2,000 ft. In the N. there are^long mountain-chains of granite, schist and porphyry. In the Centre, skirting the Eastern bank of the [^Hau-ho ^JiJ, is the Hoh- shan S UJi ^ granitic and metamorphic mountain.

Orograptay. — Shansi is formed by a strong mountain ridge, which, more or less wide, inclines gradually from N. to 8.. This large pUtteau, varying in elevation from 2,600 to 5,000 ft., is flanked on the E., N.E. and N. by peaks which rise to a still higher altitude. Its steep slopes have been deeply furrowed and eroded, and disclose to the eye at the present day the calcarious and coaly deposits which cons- titute its base. On the N., long chains traverse it from S.W. to N.B., and continue the massive crest of the Southern Ordos table-land. These attain an elevation of 3,600 feet in the Wulfai-shan 2. S llj • The Sirshan "gj [Ij or T'aihang-shan :iC tf lli' which stretches along the plateau to the S.E., rises only to 3,200 ft. , although it appears to look higher when viewed from the Chihli jt ^ plain. Further to the W., running along the left bank of the F6n-ho '^^ Jnl, is the Hoh-ahan || (J|j, the height of which is 7,860 ft. In the centre of the JProviMce there ea^sta a series of depresaUms inclining in the direction of

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 51

N. to S. and separated from each other. These are the dried- up beds of former lakes, which have disappeared, leaving behind a thick alluvial sediment more fertile than the surrounding loess or yellow land. The number of these lakes is 7, and upon their principal sites stand the following cities : Tat'ung Fu ;/(: p| jj^, (3,900 ft. high); T'aiyuen Fu jk ^> )^ (2,600 ft. high); P'ingyang Fu ¥ ^ ^ (1,800 ft. high). The Southernmost, that of Hsiai Chow ^ >)\], attains an elevation of only 1,200 ft.

In the S., is a mountain of sufficient importance to be men- tioned, the Clitmglfiao-shan PfJl^lll (3,300 ft. high), which must have been separated by an earthquake from the Hwa-shan ^ jlj (see section I. ch. I. p. 26.), which lies opposite to it. The Hwang-ho now flows between the two.

Olimate. — The climate of Shansi is severer than that of the N. taken in general. This results from the mediocre elevation of the country. Snow covers it during the long Winter months and the thermometer falls to — 4 degrees P. and even further. At T'aiyiien Fu, the lake was frozen over from November to March in 1903-04. The thermometer then fell to — 9 degrees F. and reached in Summer 82 F. .

Kydrograpliy. — In the 8., there are two important rivers, the Fhi^ho t^ fpj and the Tffin^ho ^j^ ^, both tributaries of the Bwang-ho ^ fpj". In the N., the Province is traversed by several large afiluents of the Peh-ho ^ fpf. Jn the W., a vast number of streams cutting deep ravines in the soil empty their waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fpf-

The Fhv-ho ^ fSf is the largest river of Shansi. It rises to the S. of Ningwu Fu ^ ■^ /jj, and after leaving T'aiyiien Fu -j^ H }^^ waters the most fertile part of the Province. It is navigable only up to Kiang Chow ^ jH'|, but from T'aiyiien Fu to the latter city, a very frequented road traversing numerous important centres, runs along its banks. It crosses the two richest plains of Shansi [ij |f : that of T'aiyiien Fu -j^ ^, }^ and that of P'ingyang Fu ^ ^ )^. Its waters are wont to rise suddenly and devastate the adjoining region.

The Tafimrho \ji^^, which descends from the S.E. of the pla- teau is of less importance. It waters however one of those regions richest in mineral wealth: Tsehchow Fu ^^^; and one of the most fertile and populous of all China : Hwaik'ing Fu '^ ^ ^ (Honan fpf ^).

52, SECTION I. THE NOHTHEHN REGION.

Fauna and Flora. — There is nothing special to mention, save the hunting- grounds in the North, which are reserved for the Emperor.

Agricultural Wealth. — Agricultural products are confined to a great extent within the valleys of T'aiyiien Fu ^JjJ^ jj^ and Kiang Chow |^ jlfl, and consist mainly of corn, tobacco, cotton and sometimes rice. The climate is too severe to obtain two harvests, so Shansi [Jj If is compelled to procure from the neighbouring plains the products it lacks itself.

Even as regards opium, reputed to be the best in China, the crop is insufficient. — Shansi grows excellent grapes from which wine is made, unequalled it is said, throughout China.

nUneral Wealtli. — Minerals are the great wealth of Shansi llj If Province. They consist especially of pit-coal and iron. No part of the world is perhaps so rich in coal-fields. The three principal mining-centres are the following: the basin of T'aiyiien Fu ;ic j^ ^1 t'^** of P'ingting Chow 2^ ^ ^ and the country around Tsehchow Fu ^ j>f| ^. On the S., to the E. of Hsiai Chow ^jft|, there is a salt lake called Luts'un ^^ which has consi- derable importance. A Taot'ai is in charge, to superintend the collecting of taxes upon the salt, which is afterwards sold extensively throughout Shansi [J[j "gf , Shensi ^ "gf and Honan

Population — Shansi is hospitable, industrious and eager in the pursuit of gain. The best bankers of China and her shrewdest merchants are recruited from this Province. Nearly the whole commerce of the South of Mongolia is carried on by Shansi traders, some of whom even go as far as Tibet. When enriched, they return to settle down at home, bringing back with them the means of comfort, if not of luxury.

In the N., the population is largely made up of Mongols, who number 500,000. They have their sacred mountain, the Wut'ai-shan, where they lovingly bury the remains of their relatives. A large Mongol lamasery occupies its summit. They have also their own town, Kweihwa oh'ftng, or the Blue City, called in Mongol Ku-ku Khoto.

lianguage. — Mongol is spoken throughout the N.. Everywhere else the Man- darin dialect is prevalent.

Cities and Principal Centres. — T'^jnrt)jg«r FU ^ jg

fff, with a population of 230,000 inhabitants, is the capital of Shansi llj |f and the residence of the Governor. It is situated at an elevation of 2,600 ft., on the N. of a vast plain studded with populous villages and neatly constructed houses. The valleys which open out on the plain have nearly all mines, occupying

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 53

each about 200 workmen, while rows of carts drawn by oxen and wheelbarrows bring the coal daily to the capital. Formerly this city manufactured defensive weapons on a large scale, and even at present it possesses an arsenal. It has its Tartar quarter and important barracks for the soldiers. It is surrounded by beautiful gardens and orchards. Its commerce is very brisk. In several places throughout the plain, pit-coal, iron and sulphur are found ; there is also in a neighbouring village a famous spring which has been turned to advantage by the people.

To </te If. of T'aiyUen Pu i: ^, }^ ■■

Ktveihtva c^'ewjy ^ -ffc :^.— population, 200,000 inhabitants. — The Slue (My <w Ku-kn Khoto comprises two towns, the one, religious and military, with its schools and its Lama monas- teries (the grand Lama of Mongolia, actually at Urga, resided formerly here) ; the other, largely commercial, is an important market for skins and camel-hair ropes, imported from every part of Mongolia and exported chiefly to T'ientsin ^ ^ )^ The environs are covered with fruit-trees.

Tttt^tinff Fu ^ 1^^. — A town situated 4,000 ft. above the the sea-level, in a long plain of scanty fertility where several volcanic peaks arise. There are important deposits of coal and sodium carbonate in the vicinity.

To the S. of T'aiyUen Pu:

F^nchmv Fu ^ ji^ ^. — An important town, near a rich valley abounding in coal.

P'ingyang Fu Zp^J^. — population, 19,000 inhabitants. — It is one of the oldest cities of China (tradition states that the Emperor Yao ^ resided there), but of its ancient splendour, the only remnant to-day is a magnificent city -wall. It is situated in a vast alluvial plain where the system of irrigation is unrivalled.

Siang Chow ^^. — Within the bend of the F6n-ho ^\^, towards the W.. — It is a prettily situated town, the terminus of navigation and the principal market-place of Shansi. It lies in a plain of considerable fertility and is in the neighbourhood of coal-mines.

54 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REG-ION.

To the B. of OCaiyUeii Fu -jsi M^ Mi descending towards Chihli It W. ■

r'ingUng Chmv i^% f^■ — 20,000 inhabitants. — A great manufacturing (gold and silver-ware, iron) and commercial city. In its vicinity is the rich coal-mine known as Shihpuhtaui 7^

Two other cities deserve also to be mentioned. They are situated in the T'aiyiien Fu -^^M P'^i" = F^in^yao hsien ^^|i, population, 60,000 inhabitants, — an important market for exports into Honan f^f ^; and SH h»ien f|5 f^, a very commercial town with a population of 30,000.

2V> tfie S.Xi. i

Tsehchmv Fu ^ >)i\ j^, situated in a district which abounds in coal and excellent iron-ore. As moreover, its communications with the plain are numerous, it is the centre of a very industrial region, principally iron-works.

Indnstry and Commerce. — In both of these, Shansi holds a prominent place. This is the natural outcome of the industry of its people, its rich mines and the poverty of its soil.

Several cities and large villages devote themselves specially to industry. We have mentioned above P'ingting Chow ^ ^ j^\, famous for its goldsmiths'work ; others are engaged in the paper, iron, and sulphur industries. Kiang Ohow i^ >)]] has started lately a cotton-mill.

The easport articles are principally : coal, iron, salt and products from Mongolia, such as skins and ropes. The imports, which seem to exceed the exports, consist of corn, silk, woollen- goods, tea and salted provisions.

Hlgtaways of €ommniiicatioii. — The communications are difficult through lack of good roads. Transport is extensively made upon the backs of animals : camels, mules and asses. — The principal roads are :

Two carriage rooAs. — If they can be so called, for they are very impracticable. — These are :

1° The road leading from Chin^timg Fu j£ ^ ^ (Ohihli

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 55

i[^) to Shenai gjj|f , passing by T'aiyiien Fu ^^ jg ;^, P'ing- yang Fu ^ ^ jj^, P'uchow Fu ff i|t| jj!f and T'ungkwan hsien ?i M M (Shensi). (At P'uchow Fu one may also cross the Hwang-ho ^ fpf, and proceed by T'ungchow Fu to Singan Fu M^ M^ Shensi).

2" The road leading from T'aiyU&i lu -^s;,^^ to Ttx^ung "**** :^ IrI ^- It passes by Y6nmen-kwan jjj f^ P, a famous and much frequented gate of the Great Wall. Here the road branches into two : one branch going by Shohp'ing Fu jSg ^ flj to Kweihwa ch'6ng|f ft|^; the other leading to Kalgan (Chihli). Two other roads or rather pathways are less frequented : 1° One from Tsehchow FU "^ jlfl ^ to P'ingyang JP**. 2" A second from Tsehchow Fu to T'aiyiien, Fu, passing to the W. of Lungan ¥\i\% ^ )^.

The only good Water-Bighways are: the F^n-Jio '^|pj, from Kiang Ohow ^ ^ to the Hwang-ho ^ f^ ; and the Bwang-hxt. This latter is navigable from P'uchow Fu ^ Jlf] jj|= to T'ung- kwan hsien \% BB /^i ^"^^ iii several places to the W. of Shansi jlj "g, especially near its North-Eastern bend.

Extensive traffic is carried on upon the road leading from Chihli It il to T'aiyiien Fu pfejgjjSf. From 2,000 to 3,000 mules and asses, and 200 to 300 camels, pass every day opposite a fixed place. The same activity exists in the N., at the Y6nmen )^ P^ pass. The railroad from Ch&ngUng Fu jE ^ )if (Ohihli) to T'aiyHien Fu, connecting the capital of Shansi |Jj "g' with the great trunk-line from Peking :}[^ ^ to Hank'ow ^ P (Hupeh jj^ J}t)) ^ill afford easy tranport for the rich mines of Shansi, and at the same time increase its wealth.

Note. — We have seen above that P'ingyang Fu 2p ^ }^ was the capital of the celebrated sovereign Yao ^, in the early times of the Chinese empire. In the 8.E., the present district town of Hsia hsien J % (Hsiai Chow ^ jlfl) had in its midst the court of the Emperors of the Hsia ;j dynasty, the ^rst that governed China (2,205 to 1,766 B. 0.)..

56 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REftlON.

2° . Honan M ^

Area. — 67,954 squai'e miles.

Population. — 25,317,820 or 373 per square mile.

Its Xame. — Honan }pj" ^ signifies South of the river,

and in fact the greater part of the Province lies to the South of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj, while only a small tract of land extends beyond it on the North.

Boundaries. — Honan is bounded, on the

N. — By Ohihli jf ^ and Shansi ilj |f, W. — By Shensi ^ ff and Hupeh }^ ^fc, S. - By Hupeh JiSg :}fc,

E. — By Nganhwei ^ 0, Northern Kiangsu fL ^, Shantung [Jj ;^ and Ohihli ig ^. CapiUa. — K'AIFVNG FU^ MM^ situated in the Norlh- East of the Province, and towards the South of the last great bend of the Hwang-ho ^ ^.

Other Prefectural Cities. — These number 8, three of which are to the North of tlie Hwang-ho. They are, proceeding from the West to the North-East :

1° Hwaik'ing Pu IS M ^,

2° "Weihwui Pu fB i^ ^,

3° Changteh Pu ^ ^ iff. Ttie 5 others lie along the Southern course of the Hwang- ho ^ Jpf, one to the N.W., another to the S.W., and the rest in the basin of the Hwai-ho il^ JpJ.

4° Honan Pu M ^ ^,

5° Nanyang Pu ^ F# M,

6° Tuning Pu r* ^ M,

7° Ch'tochow Pu |SR ■m iff,

8° Kweiteh Pu i! ^ flf . Honan has besides 5 independent Chow cities : Hsii Chow fj: ^, Shen Chow ^ >% Kwang Chow % .JH, Jm Chow ^ j|fl, avta Chhtg Chow fjj ^.

Aspect and Cliaracteristics. — Honan is a vast fertile pliiin, but exposed to the cold winds of the North. It has no natural separation on the East from the neighbouring Provinces,

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 57

but is closed on the S. and principally on the W., by a semi- circular chain of mountains, which allow only few passages towards the Yangtze ^^ valley, and that of the upper Hwang-ho ^ fpf. Its fertility, compared with the other Provinces of the N. has deserved for it the name of "Iiand of tlie Central Flower", and perhaps the designation of Chung-hwoh ^ ^ or "Miadle SingdomJ" given lo the whole of China, may be traced back to that origin. It affords also, excepting however the mountains of the West, commodious highways, and can exchange its products, especially agricultural wealth, although coal is not lacking, better than the other Provinces which we have previously studied. The railway which runs through it and connects the basins of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj and the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ H, will henceforth attract thereto increasing wealth and activity.

GeoTosr><*al constitution. — Yt-Uow earth predominates in a large portion of the Xorth, and is mingled with alluvial soil in the basin of the Hwai-ho ^ fiif. In the W., the Fnniu Mountains are composed of marble, sand-stone and granite. The mountains which are their continuation to the S., are formed also of granite, schist and gneiss.

Orography. — On the North of tlie Hwany-ho ^ jpj, the surface rises slowly towards the N. E., but more abruptly to the N.W., where it forms the first slopes of the T'aihang-ahan -jl^^ \\i range.

On the South of tlie Hwang-ho ^ fpj :

Throughout the whole Western and South-Western part of the Province, the last branches of the Eastern K'uenlun g .^ throw out numerous spurs, which are called, proceeding from \. lo S., the Hwa-shan ^ [Ij, Funiu-shan^ ^ (Ij, and further Southwards, the HwaUung-shan ^ f | |Jj and Hwaiyang-shan ?^ ^ ill- The whole mass varies from 2,600 to 3,000 feet in average elevation, though it exceeds at times the height of 6,000 feet. The Funiu-shan reaches also an elevation of 7,800 ft. in the Pehyun-sJuin & .^ llj, while the Sunff-shan j^ [Jj, an important mountain-mass advancing into the plain to the S. E. of Honan Fu fpf ^ j^, rises likewise to the height of 7,800 ft. in the TanffcJi'Mg-shan ^ M llj- The plain slopes slightly down as these mountains advance towards the B..

58

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

AVOIIO X\£

I I ' \

l_L-JL

o

be I

i

i:

3

3

r — 5 — r

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 59

The climate of Honan becomes milder as one advances Southward. Here the same products grow as in the valley of the Yangtze. In the N., the cold and dust- storms are severely experienced during the AVinter season.

Sydirograpliy. — The rivers may be divided into four different systems.

1° On the N. of the Hwang-ho ^ ]pj, several streams, the principal of which is the Wei-ho ^ ^pf, run into the €frand Canal. The Wei-ho is navigable up to Tao-k'ow |g P, and throughout the greater part of the year, even up to Siuwu hsien ^ 5^ ^ near Hwaik'ing Fu '^ ^ ^, considerably higher than Weihwui Fu ^ ^ ^. Numerous and limpid streams fertilise all this part of Honan |p[ ^.

2° The foUmmng empty themselves into the Hwang-ho

On the N., the Ts'in-ho jjjj |g', flowing down from Shansi \\] 'g (see description of this Province p. 51), and on the S., the Zoh-ho ^ JpJ". This latter waters a very fertile valley running parallel to the basin of the Hwang-ho and famous in the history of China.

3" On the S.W. of the Ihtniit-shan fj^ ^ llj, two rivers, the Feh-ho ^ m and the T'ang-ho ^ fp]", which water the whole region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ )^, and after uniting their streams, flow into the Han-JM ^ ^ opposite Siangyang Fu ^ 1^ )^, in Hupeh jjj^ 4b- The Peh-ho is navigable at all times up to Nanyang Fu. — Another river, the Xan-hiang -^fX.^ runs a little further Westward into the Han-ho '^J^, and is navigable in Winter up to Kingtze-kwan ^J ^ ^, affording thereby a highway to Singan Fu 'g -^ jj^ in Shensi |^ ||.

4° The Stvai-ho ^ Jpf and its tributaries, the principal of which is the Sha-ho ^ ^. Nearly all its affluents flow from N.W. to S.E.. The Hwai-ho, after flowing for a time from W. to E., but impeded in its course by the mountains of Western Nganhwei ^1^, runs in a North-Bastern direction upon entering Nganhwei,and there empties its waters into the Hungtseh Lake gt ^. It is navigable below Sinyang Chow ft ^ iltl (Juning Fu y^^}^). The Sha-ho is so likewise below Cheukia-k'ow ^^ P, where it receives the Kialu-ho'^^i^ and the Tii-ho ^ JjJ.

60 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Htvang-Ju>, which bisects the Northern part of Honan JpJl^, is navigable from Szeshui hsien ^ tJC ]|^ near K'aifung 1"'" ^ # ^' a little to the N.E. of Honan Fu, till it leaves Honan fpf ^. Navigation on it is however rather difficult. At low-water season, it is very shallow, and when the flood sets in, the current is too strong for junks. To the N.E. of K'ai- fung Fu, its former bed is still visible, and we shall deal with it when describing North-Kiangsu ^ j^.

Fauna and Flora. — There is nothing deserving any particular mention, save that in the S. the fauna and flora of the Central Region begin to appear in some places.

Agricultural WealtU. — The soil of Honan is very fertile and produces excellent crops : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian- corn, cotton and opium. The most fertile parts are 1" the region of Hwaik'ing Fu '^^^, a real garden with numerous planta- tions of trees and shrubs; the soil is well irrigated. 2" the region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ ^, which produces cotton, opium, and a little silk. 3° the Loh-ho j!^ Jpf valley, a splendid alluvial country, growing corn, fruit and the poppy in abundance. The Western mountains alone are barren, being for the greater part destitute of trees. The Funiu -f/J^ mountains are however partially covered with dwarf oaks, upon the leaves of which numerous silk-worms are fed. The rearing of the silk-worm is the chief source of prosperity of this region.

Mineral wealth. — The mineral wealth consists prin- cipally of coal-mines (between Lushan hsien ^[Ijfg and Ju Chow W^)- Ii'O"' t'" ®"<i argentiferous lead-ore are also found.

Population. — The people are principally given to agriculture, and few alien elements are found among them. K'aifung Fu had formerly an important colony of Jews, but they have now dwindled to only a few members. The population is very dense everywhere, but particularly to the N. of the Hwang-ho, and in the country sur- rounding Nanyang Fu. An exception must however be made for the mountainous district of the W..

Language. — Mandarin is spoken throughout the whole Province.

Cities and Principal Centres. — K'AIFVNO FV^^}^.

— population, 200,000 inhabitants. Situated to the S. of the bend of the Hwang-ho ^' }pj, it was formerly a city of great impor- tance, but is nowadays without either commerce or industry.

CHAPTER III. HON AN. 61

Despite the numerous embankments which surround it, it is much exposed to the inundations of the Hwang-ho, to which it has already fallen many times a victim.

To the North of the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf :

Hwaik'ing Fu l^J^)^. — a large city but doing no trade.

Tafinghtva ehen J^-ffc^. — a few miles to the East of Hwaik'ing Fu, is a large emporium and carries on a consider- able trade in coal and iron. It is moreover a very populous city and an important transit centre. Steel instruments are extensively manufactured there, and it is the chief market for the medicinal plant called "Ti-hwang" Jfe ^ (a medicinal root perhaps allied to cumfrey and used as a febrifuge. — Williams.), the sale of which realises £160,000 annually.

Ttmkfow Chen j^ P ^. — to the N. E. of Weihwui Fu. A considerable commercial mart upon the Wei-ho ^ Jpf , which is always navigable up to this place except when the ice has formed. By this river, a large portion of the mineral and metallurgic products of South-Eastern Shansi [Ij ^, and also corn from Hwaik'ing Fu '^^^j^, are exported to the N. E. Taok'ow chhi, is the terminus of the Honan fpf '^ railway.

In the part S. of the Hwang-ho ^fpj'. To the N.W. and W. :

Honan Fu ^ ^ ]^- — In the rich valley of the Loh-ho f^ J^. The city is advantageously situated at the crossing of the highroads leading to Singan Fu 'g ^ jj^ in Shensi ^JS- It is nowadays of no importance. To the S., rises the sacred Sung- shan ^ [Ij mountain, and to its W. is the famous defile known as Lung-m6nf|p^, whose banks are adorned with pagodas and ancient sculptures carved in the limestone rock. Several of the statues of Buddha are over 60 feet in height.

Ju Chow ^ji\. — A town situated in the midst of splendid scenery and in a well-watered valley. The environs were formerly very industrial, but have lost their activity. The manufacture of common pottery is still carried on and gives it some importance.

62 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

lAtshan hMen ^ [1} ^. — Centre of the silk trade in this district. Paper is also manufactured as well as pottery and waggons with cast-iron wheels, much in demand throughout the whole of this region.

Xo the S. M and S. :

Nanyang Fu -^ ^ ^. — An important city, both as a transit place and as the centre of a populous and fertile region.

Sh^kH ehin ^ j^ ^. — A very important commercial centre between the Provinces of the N, E. and those of the W. It has large warehouses.

Sinyang Chow ^^^- — An important town and the head of navigation on the Shih-ho |^ ^, a tributary of the Hwai-ho 'M M- ^^ '^ ^^^ terminus of the high-road which comes from the N., and continues Southwards over the mountains by a mule-path. Numerous rafts bring salt from the maritime Pro- vinces. The Peking-Hankow railway ^ ^ which passes near it, gives it a still greater importance.

To the B. :

CheMMa-Tsfow Jg ^ P . — to the W. of Chenchow Fu ^% jj^. — The most important commercial centre of Eastern Honan fpf '^. It is situated at the confluence of 3 rivers. The Sha-ho ^ ^ is navigable up to this place the whole year round, and all three are navigable in the flood season.

Industry and Commerce. — If we except its iron and earthenware trade, Honan is not a very industrial Province.

Its export trade consists chiefly of agricultural products : corn, cotton and opium, while its imports are textile fabrics from Hupeh ^ :fc and T'ientsin Fu 5^ ^ ^ (in Chihli jt 0), and iron supplied by Shansi [{j 'g.

Blghways of communication. — Communications are easy, save in the W. . We have seen to what extent the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf, Wei-ho ^ fpj, Hwai-ho ff Jpf and Peh-ho g Jfff are navigable. (The T'ang-ho jg ff , which joins this latter, is also navigable as far as Sh6k'i ch6n ^ ■f^ ^). The principal roads are .•

CHAPTER in. HONAN. 63

1° The road fnvm Peking 4fc ]ft «o Hank'mu ^ p (Hupeh ^ ^t), passing by Changteh Fu ^ @ jjOp, Weihwui Fu ff jg J^, K'aifung Fu ^ f^ jjSf, Cheukia-k'ow ^ ^ p and Sinyang Chow It It W (Juning Fu -^ ^ ijSf).

2° The road leading from, R'aifunp Fu to Singan Fu 'g ^ )^ (Shensi ^ ||), passing by Honan Fu ^pj j^ jjf and then skirting the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj".

3° The road leading /rom Honan Fu to Siangyang Fu ^1^ jjj (Hupeh ?j^:|t;), on the Han-ho ^fpf, traversing Ju Ohow, Lu- shan hsien and the Nanyang Fu ^|^;g^ pass. This pass stands at an elevation of 1,500 ft., and is situated between two moun- tains whose altitude varies from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. It is nearly 25 miles in length, but offers no difficulty.

4° The road leading from, Weihtvui Fu ^ ^ )^ to Honan Fu, passing by Hwaik'ing Fu i^ ^ ^.

5" The road leading from Sfaifung Fit to Fungyang Fu %,^ ^ va. Nganhwei ^ ^, passing by Kweiteh Fu If ;^, ^j^^.

The FeMn^-Hanlffow railway passes by Yungtseh hsien ^ ^ M; Shenchow Fu g^ i\\ }^, Hsii Chow |^ ^, Yench'^ng hsien gU ^^ jg, Sip'ing hsien ^ ¥ M^ Suip'ing hsien ^ 2p 1^,, K'iohshan hsien |^ jjj J^ and Sinyang Chow ^ ^ 'M-

JLnother line, that of Honan \^ '^j runs from SinTiMang jtMen 1§i % %to Taok'ow chin Jl P i^ on the Wei-ho ^ fpf .

A third line, recently opened, runs from, Ching Chow ^>}\\ to K'aifung Fu^ ^ M-

Note. — The ancient capital of China stood several times in Honan ^ ^. It was situated in the valley of the Loh- ho ^ fpf, in the environs of K'aifung Fu ^ ^^, or at Kweiteh Fu ^ ^ jjj. If we believe the legend, Fuhsi {^ ^ the first Emperor of China, had also his capital there.

References

Grenard. — Mission scientifique de la Haute Asie. Paris. 1897. (ch. VII, p. 423 to 440).

lieprince-Ringaet. — Tour du Monde. 1902. (p. .814 sq. and p. 347 sq.).

Rockbill. — The Land of the Lamas. New- York. 1891. oh. I.

Williamson. — Journey in North-China. London. 1870. (vol. I. ch. 9. and 10, Shan- si; ch, 15. to 19, Honan).

64

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Richthofen. — Letters. Shanghai. 1873

(p. 18-40, Honan and Shansi. — p. 77-

96, Chihli, Mongolia and Shansi\ Kerval. — Deux martyrs fran^ais (au

Chan-si). Rome, W'S. Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris. 1878

(liv. II. ch. 11 and 12, Honan). Chavannes. — Le defile de Longmen.

(Journal Asiatique. 1902). Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. Vol.

I. 4"> Edit. New- York. (Shansi. p. 7S-7n ;

Honan. p. 79-80). Grosier. — General description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. Shan.ii. p. 83-87;

Honan. p. 73-78). David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875

(vol. I. ch. 5 and 6). Tobar. — Inscriptions juives de K'ai-fong

fou. Chang-hai. 1900. Murray. — Historical and descriptive

account of China. Edinburgh. 1843. iVol.

III. Shansi. p. 21-22; Honan. 27-28). Little A. — The Far East. Oxford. 1905.

(Shansi. p. 29-33; Honan. p. 39-44). Alappa della Provincia di Ho-nan (Diseg-

nata da un alunno della Missione Ita-

liana di Kin-kia-kan).

CHAPTER IV.

THE REGION OF THE LOWER HWANG-HO AND OF THE PEH-HO

(CHIHLI it ^ AND SHANTUNG Oj ^).

These 2 provinces, like the 2 preceding ones, are indepen- dent of each other. The former, Chihli g gj, has however a Viceroy residing at Paoting Fu f^ ^ }^, while Stuintung ^ ^ is ruled by a Governor, whose residence is at Tsinan Fu ^1^}^. Like Shansi jlj |g and Honan fpf ^, CMhli jg ^ and Shantung [Ij -^ differ widely from each other. Chihli jg ^ in times gone by, a gulf, but now filled up, is hemmed in by a semicircle of high mountains. SJiantwig, a former island, sur- rounded little by little by alluvial deposits, strikes boldly out into the ocean. Chihli has but one very shallow sea, which washes the coast, and is very little indented. The coast-line of Shantung is dotted with bays, several of which are of great depth. Chihli is traversed by long rivers, which descend in cascades and rapids from the mountains that surround it.

Shantung has long rivers only in the N.W., and they all run in lowlands. The 2 provinces, as we shall see further on, have many other distinctive characteristics.

Moreover, they are densely populated, and lack neither min- eral nor agricultural resources. Both are important from an historical standpoint, Chihli possessing for several centuries the Capital of China, and SJiantung having given birth to Confucius (K'ung Futze ^ 3fe ^^. 551-479. B.C.), and to his principal follower, Mencius (MSngtze ^ ^. 372-289. B.C.).

5

6f> SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

1". Chihli

Area. — 115,830 square miles.

Population. — 20,930,000 inhabitants, or 180 to the square mil*.

It must however be remarked, that as the greater part of the inhabitants live in the plain, the density is greater therein.

TTame. — Chihli ^ ^ signifies "directly ruled?', or "imr mediately obeying". It was formerly called JPeir-ChiMi :|t ji[ ^ or NortTiem Chihli, in order to distinguish it from Kiangnan fL ^ (the present Kiangsu fL |^ and Nganhwei ^ ^), which bore the name of Nan-Chihli "^ li[ ^ or Southern ChiMi.

Boundaries. — The Province of Chihli is bounded on the N. — By Mongolia, W. — By Shansi [Ij ^, S. — By Honan ^ ^ and Shantung [Ij ^, E. — By the Gulf of Chihli jl!^ and Manchuria.

Capitals. — Two Capitals are to be distinguished in this Province : That of Chdna, which is JPEKUfG ^\^ jfr, also called Slinnt'loa Fu jl|f ^ J^, not far from the Western mountains, on a tributary of the Peh-ho ^ fpf.

OChMt of the Province of Chihli, which is PAOTHfO FU # ^ Jff> also on a tributary of the Peh-ho and situated to the S.W. of Peking.

Other Prefectures. — These are 9 in number : To the N., in the nwuntainou^ regitm proceeding from W. to E. :

i" Siienhwa Fu S ft W,

2° Ch'§ngteh Pu * ^ ;fi=, called also Jehol (Jehho.eul f^ Jif ^

warm river), 3° Yungp'ing Fu 7Jt ^ Jf . To the S. of Peking, on the Peh-ho |^ fpj :

4° T'ientsin Fu 5^ S: W. To the W. of the Province, descending from N. to S. : 5° Hokien Fu n TbT M, 6° Chfingting Fu jE ^ fl?=,

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 67

7° Shnnteh Pu IS S fl?,

8° Kwangp'ing YnmWm,

9° Taming Pu ;*: « W. There are besides in Chihli jl; ;^, 6 independent Chows : Tsunhwa Chow ^ ffc >)^, I Chow ^ ^M, Ki Chow M. jHl, ChMO Chow Jl jHI, Sheiv Chow ^ ^, mid Ting Chow ^ ^.

Aspect and Cbaracteristics. — The traveller from Mon- golia, descending from the high plateaux abounding in pasture- lands, finds himself all at once in presence of mountains, which descend rapidly to a large plain, irrigated by turbid risers, and nearly all unfit for navigation. This plain, covered in Summer with an abundant harvest, but also with thick mud, as soon as the rairis set in, is swept in Winter by a cold blast, which covers it with a cloud of yellow dust. It is nevertheless inhabited, but by indigent families. The South-Western portion alone is remar- kable for its greater fertility and its richer vegetation. Consi- derable activity reigns throughout Chihli jf; ^, and is directed especially towards T'ientsin 3R j^ /^ and Peking ^ ■^, the two great centres of the Province.

Geological constitution. — The great Eastern plain of Chihli is entirely composed of alluvimu, deposited doubtless by the delta of the Yellow Eiver (Hwang- ho) and by the Peh-ho. A small tract of yellow earth is found towards the W.. The mountainous region contains chiefly China limestone, and is traversed in many places, as it abuts on the plain, with volcanic streaks of porphyry and granite. Then further on, are found granite, schist, and gneiss, partially buried beneath volcanic eruptions and yellow earth or loess. Generally speaking however, especially in the volcanic region of the N., the China limestone is predominant, and is covered over with rich coal measures. The denuded layers are conspicuous in the mountains which lie to the W. of Peking.

Orograpby. — The plain rises gradually with only a few undulations up to the mountains. These then soar abruptly, running in the direction N.E. — S.W., and constitute the pro- longation of the chains, which we have already noted on the N. of Shansi [Ij |f . They form towards the W. several parallel lines, which are called, as they proceed from the plain towards Mongolia : the Hung-shan ^ [[j , Siaowut'ai-ahan <j^ 5^ § llj , Bwangyang-shan %ij^ lii, and the Kuln-shan fj |^ jij- This latter extends to the N.W. of Kalgan (^ ^ □ Ohangkia-k'ow), under the name of the Tin-shan ^ [Ij and the Wei-shan i^ jlj

68

SECTION I. -fHE NORTHERN REGION.

NORTHERN CHIHLI

and Approaches to Peking.

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 69

mountains. The Wei-shan has the highest peak in Chihli jj|^ : the Feh-eh'a ^Q, which attains an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet. Towards the N.E. these mountains descend gradually, proceeding from the Peh-shan to Jehol (Ch'Sngteh Fu JS^»Jj^). In this very hilly region, there are large valleys, which are used for agricultural purposes, when they are covered with loess or volcanic earth.

Climate. — The climate of Chihli is excessively hot in Summer, both on the mountains and in the plain. The Spring is dry ; rain sets in only in July and August, and falls principEilly in the plain. It is very cold in Winter, and the rivers are frozen over from the middle of November. When snow falls; it melts quickly in the plain. The inequality of the rain-fall renders the harvests very precarious, and so the Province verges often on scarcity and suffers even from famine. Moreover, the Summer rains make the roads impracticable, and the dry persistent westerly gales of Winter, raise thick clouds of dust (the famous Peking dust-storms, March to June) throughout the plain.

Hydrograpliy. — Chihli ^^ is exceedingly well irrigated, and its rivers flow into the Gulf of the same name. The most important is the Feh-ho Q fpj, with its numerous tributaries. The others are : to the N., the Lwan-ho ^ }pf; <o the S., the Htvanff-ho ^ fpJ, the Wei-ho % fpf and the Chang-Jw j^ Jpf. These latter streams traverse only the Southern extremity of the Province. The Wei-ho, as we have seen (see Honan Jpf ^ section I. ch. III. p. 59), is navigable there, but the Hwang-ho is not. The Chang-ho, which comes from Shansi jlj "gf , and runs for a considerable distance beside the Grand Canal, into which it finally flows, is also unfit for navigation.

The Feh-ho ^ fpJ (white river). — The Feh-ho rises in the Yin-shan [^ 1I4 mountains. After running parallel to the Great Wall, and descending suddenly between denuded mountains, it enters the plain to the N. of Peking ;jt M) already swollen by several torrents. It becomes navigable however only at T'ung Chow jj jl'H. Henceforth, it runs S.E. and assumes great impor- tance at T'ientsin "Ji^M- From this city to the sea, it takes an Easterly direction, and empties its waters into a muddy bay. The bar which exists at its mouth, has only about three feet of water on it at ebb-tide, which renders the passage very difficult.

It is at T'ientsin ^ ^ ||, and on its right, that it receives

70 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

its principal tributaries : 1° the SanffJean-ho ^ ^ M) called also Yenrho '^ fpj" and TtmgUnff-ho ^ jg fpf . 2" the Hutfo- ho \i$. v''£ fpf, which comes from Northern Shansi lU H. The Sangkan-ho receives on its right the Tge-ho ^ JrJ, a tributary of which, the Tafingytien-ho If ^ Jpf' '^ navigable as far as Paoting Fu iJ^ £ /jSp.

These two rivers have this in common, that rising in denuded mountains, and flowing down into the plain, they at times over- flow their banks and cover the country with an immense sheet of water. The region around T'ientsin is especially exposed to these terrible inundations. Here also are found the principal lakes of the plain.

The Uwanrho -J^ jpf, after having made an immense sweep to the N. of Dolon-Nor (city in the N. of Chihli JIl^. — Mongol, "seven lakes"), traverses from N.W. to S.E. the whole moun- tainous region of North-Eastern Ohihli ]i; ^, then passes to the S. of Jehol (Gh'^ngteh Fu ^ :^ ^), and flows into the Gulf of Ohihli, a little beyond Yungp'ing Fu ^ ^ ^.

No large river flows through Peking 4fc flCi but only two streams of little importance.

Fauna and Flora. — The famia and flora of Chihli, are those of the Northern Begion, interspersed as one advances towards Mongolia with the characteristics peculiar to those high table-lands, (see Book II. Mongolia : fauna and flora).

Agricnltnral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Chihli consists in corn, barley, buck- wheat, millet, sesamum, beans and peas. Fruit grows plentifully in the S.W., especially grapes. — Horses, donkeys, mules, oxen and the Mongolian camel are found extensively throughout the country. In the mountainous region, cows, sheep and goats are reared, and largely supply the Ohihli ||[ ^ markets with food.

Fish is very scarce in the rivers and ponds of Chihli ; a few kinds however are caught in some of the lakes.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Chihli consists mainly of coal-mines, which ai"e found principally to the W. of Peking, and atK'aip'ing |g^, near the railway, which runs from T'ientsin ^^^ to Manchuria. Kaolin and sand-stone are also

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 7t

found, as well as a great quantity of stone for building purposes.

Population. — The population is very dense tiiroughout the whole plain, and principally towards the S. ■«'. — In the mountainous region it is centred in the most fertile valleys.

The inhabitants of Chihli are hardier, more robust and braver than those of the Southern Provinces. This is due to the predominance of Tartar blood in their veins, the stimulating and cool climate, and their dry-grain diet : wheat, millet and sorghum.

At Peking, more than elsewhere, a large admixture of several races is found : Chinese from the 18 Provinces, Mongols and Manchus. Constant intercourse is main- tained with Mongolia, but much less with Sinkiang and Tibet.

Cities and Principal Centres. — PEKING ^f^, the Ca- pital of China, is built on the Tiinghwui-ho, a tributary of the Peh-ho gfpf. It received the name of Peking (Northern Capital), to distin- guish it from Nanking ^ ]^ (Southern Capital), under the Ming H^ dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644). Peking v?as originally founded by the Leao ^ dynasty A.D. 920, and then called Yenking ^ 5^. The Kin Tartars or Golden Horde, conquered the House of Leao, and occupied the site of Peking from A. D. 1115 to 1234. The Kin Emperors were in turn ousted by the Mongols, who made it their capital under the name oiShun^ien Fu ^Ji}^ (city obedient to heaven). Its Mongol appellation, according to Marco Polo, was Kambalu (city of the Khan). In 1341, the Mongols wefp' driven out by the native Ming B^ dynasty. These established their first Capital at Nanking, but owing to renewed Tartar in-^ cursions, Twngloh ^ ^ (1403-1425), the 3«i Emperor of the Ming dynasty, removed in 1416 to Peking, which has remained the na- tional Capital ever since, about 500 years, without interruption.

The actual city has a population varying from 600,000 to 800,000 inhabitants. It stands upon a flat plain, and is composed of 2 parts, both forming a rectangle, and communicating with each other : the Tartar City on the N. and the Chinese City to the 8.

The Tartar City, called also the Interior fjtty {pj j^ Nei ch'eng), comprises the Imperial Precincts (^ ^ Hwang ch'6ng) and the Med ForUdden City [^ ^ ^ Tzekin ch'eng). It has also numerous temples, courts and parks. The T^gatUme are in the S.E. of the Tartar City,

72

SECTION I. THE NORTHBRN REGION.

PLAN OF PEKING

^ m ^ m

A. HWANG CH'ENG g Jgf.

[mpmial City (within the Tartar City).

B. NEI CH'ENG PS M-

NoHheni or Tartar City.

C. WAI CH'feNG jr|. ^.

Southeni or Chinese City,

CHAPTER IV.

CHIHLI.

73

INDEX

TO PLAN OF PEKING.

1. — Xganting min ^ ^ f^.

Peaceful Gate.

2. — Tehshengmcn % }$ P^.

Gate of Victory.

3. — Prefedureof Shunt icn Fti^Ji'^.

4. — Sichih men ©' jt P^.

Direct West Gate.

5. - SWang n ^•

Western Church (R.C.).

6. — Tungchih inin ig ji; PI.

Direct East Gate.

7. — Tingan men Jft ^ P^j.

Gate of Terrestrial Peace.

8. — Feuch'lng mhi %. BE P^.

Gate of .\bundant Wealth.

g. — Singan men ^ ^ p^.

Gate of Western Peace (Interior gate, leading to the Imperial City).

10. — Sinpeifientsu-t'ang ff*?c±®'

New Peit'ang (R. C. Cathedral).

11. — Pei-hai ^ \%.

Northern I^ake.

12. — Chung-hai «J> J5.

Central I,ake.

13. — Chaoyang men % H P^.

Gate of the Rising Sun.

14. — TaWingmhi -X'^^.

Gate of Great Purity (reigning title of the present Manchu dynasty).

15. ~ Chengyang mi-n jg H PI-

Meridian or Noonday Gate.

16. — Raihvay station to Hank'oiv. i-j. — Railzcay station to THcntsin.

18. — Foreign Legations.

19. — Sipien men H ffi PI-

West-privy Gate.

20 — Changi men ^ H p^.

Gate of Pompous Ceremony.

21. — SiienzvHinen g; |^ pg.

Gate of Military Renown.

22. — ChUmgTVen men ^ ^ W

Gate of Sublime Literature.

23. — Tungpien iiihi ^ M P']-

Kast-privy Gate.

24. — Kwangk'ii in(n ^ |g p^.

Gate of the Large Canal.

25. — Sienntmg-t'an ifc :^ fl|.

Temple of Agriculture.

26. — THen-t^an Ji. j@.

Temple of Heaven.

27. — Yiungan min j^ gj p^.

Gale of Peace (on the right).

28. — Yungting mln ^ ^ pg.

Gate of Perpetual Stability.

29. — Tsongan inln ^ 3c H-

Gate of Peace (on the left).

30. — Railway to T'ientsin.

74 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Chinese City contains 2 parks in which are the Temples of Heaven and of Affricfulture. It is the great centre of industry and commerce.

Both cities cover an area of 40 square miles, but there are many empty spaces. Two streams run through them, but are scarcely sufficient to supply the great city with water. Thick walls surround the Capital, and are so broad at the top, that one could drive several waggons on them side by side.

The roads of the Chinese City are constantly crossed by caravans of camels, mules and asses, transporting wool, tea and coal.

Peking is not only the residence of the Emperor and his Court, but also the seat of the Grand Council, the Grand Set^etariat, the various Boards, and the Court of Censors. The city has its special administration, distinct from that of Chihli ||[^, and at the head of which is a Mayor or Governor called Kimg-fu -^ )^ (Imperial Prefect) or Fu-yin ^ f* (Metropoli- tan Governor).

The Port of Peking is at a short distance to the E. and is called Jfung Chmv ^ jHI- It is situated on the Peh-ho. Rail- ways bring the capital into easy communication with Hank'ow :g|P, the great central mart of China, and with Europe, through Manchuria. T'ientsin connects it also with Japan, Shanghai, Canton, and the other important places on the coast.

The Bmnmer Palace of the Emperor is to the N. W. of the Tartar City, and is called the TuenmAng-Tuen jU B^ @ (round bright garden). The Emperor has also his private hun- ting-grounds to the 8. of the Chinese City. They are called the Nan-Yuen ^ ^ (Southern Park) or Nanhaitze |^ ^ ■^■

Several reasons determined the Emperors of China to select this place, in preference to any other that seemed more central, such as Nanking ^ )^ or Singan Fu |f ^ ^. In the eyes of the Mongol or Manchurian Emperors, it has been chosen, because of its proximity to their native country ; in regard to the Chinese Emperors, because of the greater facility it afforded to control both countries. Moreover, it is central with respect to the 18

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 75

Provinces, to Mongolia and Manchuria, the most important parts of the Empire.

PJ^OTJUG FU^^}^. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. Provincial Capital of Chihli, and official residence of the Viceroy. As a city, it is unimportant and devoid of activity, but the Pe- king-Hankow railway will undoubtedly arouse it from its torpor. A university was erected there in 1901.

T'iemsin Fu ^ ^ )^. — Population, 750,000 inhabitants.

T'ientsin is the most important commercial and industrial city of the whole N.. It is situated at the junction of the Peh- ho iQ fpj with the Grand Canal, a little below the place where its principal tributaries enter the Peh-ho. Besides, the railway brings it into constant communication with Peking :jt T^ and Manchuria. England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Russia and Japan, have Settlements there. The Peh-ho attains there a width of 300 yards, while a wharf, nearly two miles long, affords steamers and junks every facility for coming alongside. Commerce in skins, bristles, furs, ropes and camel-hair fabrics is very important. T'ientsin exports also avast quantity of wool and coal, while the market of rice and stuffs is very extensive. The city has vast stores of cereals, and an abundant supply of salt, of which it holds the monopoly. — The Viceroy, although not re- siding officially in the city, has his Yamen ^P^ there, and close by it, is an important arsenal. — As to industry, cotton mills deserve special mention. Since the Boxer Insurrection, in 1900, the aspect of the city has completely changed. Wide roads have been opened, the city-wall has been pulled down, the course of the river straightened out, electric lighting and tramways introduced, and a system of pure drinking-water established, so that the city of late shows all the signs of active development and progress.

To the 8. W. of Footing Fw f^ ^ ^, on the road leading from Chengting Fu JE ^ jjf to Shansi [Ij |f :

HwoMuh JtMen ^^f^- — A market-place of great impor- tance from a commercial and industrial point of view. It is the trading centre between Shansi and Chihli. Excellent stoneware is manufactured there, and the article is in great demand.

76

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

SKETCH-MAP OF T'lENTSIN

ji n f^

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. TT

To tlie N. E. of TungpHng Fu ^^ }^ :

SlianUal-kwan llj :^ ^ (mountain and sea-barrier).

Population, 30,000 inhabitants. It stands at a distance of two and a half miles from the sea, and is situated near a famous pass, which gives it importance. A military station is established there.

Pehtai-ho. — A celebrated watering-place, some 22 miles S. W. of Shanhai-kwan, and 9 miles from the port of Ts'inwangtao.

In the Mountainous region, to the W. :

Siienliwa Fo W-ffefl^. — Situated in a region covered with loess, and owing its prosperity to its being in the centre of a number of large valleys. Cereals, vegetables and fruit thrive well in the whole region, and supply largely the Peking markets.

Kalgaii or Changhin-k'oiv 5g ^ Q , with a population of 30,000. It is one of the most important commercial centres in China, and the great emporium of the tea trade with Siberia and Russia, during the Winter season. Nearly half a million camels are employed in this transport.

Doloii-Nor (Tolunnoheul ^ ■f^ ^ M- — Mongol, "seven lakes").

At a short distaflce from Shangtu _t ^, 4he ancient Summer Capital of the Mongol Sovereigns, but now in ruins. Dolon-Nor has a population of 15,000 half-Mongol inhabitants, and is rather an encampment than a city. It is the great market for horses brought in from Eastern Mongolia. A few miles from the town are Lama monasteries, which have given to the place the name of Lama-miao (tfi) 1^ ^ Lama temples).

To the North-Uast. :

Jetaol lift JpT ^ (Jehho-eul, warm river).

Formerly the cherished country-seat of the Chinese Em- perors. The park is surrounded by a battlemented wall, which has a circuit of 15 miles, while the palace and its appurtenanct s occupy a vast space. A great number of monasteries are built in the environs. The city, although abandoned by the Court, possesses still many officials and a strong muster of troops.

78 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Prefecture of Jehol, called in Chinese j|t ^ ^ (Ch'eng- teh Fu), is governed, not by a civil officer, but by a Military Lieutenant-Governor or Tu-T'ung ^ f^.

Industry and Commerce. — Besides the industries already mentioned, several others may be quoted, though none attain any great importance. The principal are distilleries, dyeing works and cotton manufacturing.

A very brisk commerce is carried on with Mongolia, Man- churia and Japan, the entrepot of which is T'ientsin 5^ ^ f^.

The chief import articles are : fabrics, tea, rice, fruit, opium, skins, furs, timber, coal and iron.

The exports are : skins, bristles, ropes, camel-hair carpets and wool.

Higbways of communication. — Besides the railway, the etrand Canal (see for both : Section V. ch. VI. Highways of communication), the Beh-ho g fpj" and some of its tributaries, the principal ways of communication are :

1° The road from Peking 4fc M **> Shanhm^k/wan ^%^, passing by T'ung Chow }§ j^j (at the B. of Peking), and Yung- p'ing Fu ;qc ^ H^-

2° The road from Peking to I>oi«m-^«M*, passing by Fungning hsien ^^J||, after having crossed the Kupei-k'ow -jfr^bP pass.

3" The road from, Pekimg to Kalgan (proceeding thence to Urga), passing by Siienhwa Fu ^-ft^S^, and crossing the Chang- kia-k'ow ?i ^ P or Kalgan pass.

4" The roaa from, Pekvng to T'aiyUen Fu -^ J^^ f^, in Shansi ilj ^, and thence to Singan Fu |f ^ ^j^ (Shensi ^ ||), passing by Paoting Fu ^ ^ ;^, and Ghengting Fu JE ^ ;^.

5° The roaa from, Peking to Tsinan Fu ^ ^ JJJ (in Shan- tung ilj ^), passing by Hokien Fu fpf f^ ^.

Open Ports. — Two ports are open to Foreign trade in the Province of Chihli ji[ ^ : — T'ient^n ^ ^ f^ and Ts'in- wany-tao ^ 3E A) depending on Yungp'ing Fu ^ ^ f^. -^ There is besides a custom-house at Taku ^ yj[f , and Tungku ^ ^, near the estuary of the Peh-ho g }pf, on the highway to T'ientsin ?? j(t ^-

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG. 79

2". Shantung Ui "^

Area. — 55,984 square miles.

Popnlatlon. — 38,247,900 inhabitants, or 683 per square mile.

This province has the densest population of China, and as to the number of its inhabitants, it comes immediately after Szechw'an gg j||.

?rame. — Shantung ilj ;^ means "mist of the Mountnin^',

and, in fact, a great part of the Province lies to the E. of the T'ai-shan % [Ij, the famous mountain frequented by so many pilgrims.

Bonndarles. — Shantung is bounded on the

N. — By the strait of Ohihli jf ^, the Gulf and

Province of Chihli, W. — By Ohihli if ^ and Honan fpf ^, S. — By Honan ^ ^, Kiangsu gC j|^ and the

Yellow Sea, E. — By the Yellow Sea ^ %.

Capital.— TSET^JV FV ^ ^ ;i^, which stands at a short distance from the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^fpf, and to the N. W. of the T'ai-shan %. [1] mountain.

Other Prefectures. — These are nine, as follows : To the 8. W. :

1° Ts'aochow Pu W ffl M- AUyng the Grand Canal or near it, proceeding from N. to 8. :

2° Timgch'aiig Pn :^ 1 W.

3° Yenchow Fu ^ Wl M,

4° Ichow Fn iJr i>H ;fiF. To the N., goiaig from W. to IS. :

5° Wuting Pu ^ ^ fl?r-,

6° Ts'ingchow Pu ^ jtH Jff .

7"LaicliowFu^ffl M^

8° Tfingchow Fu g * fl9=- To the 8. of Tainan Ihi :

9° T'aingan Fu Ijp * )f •

80 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

There are also in Shantung .5 itidependent Chow cities •' Tsining Chow ^ ^ ^, JAnta'ing Chotv f^ Jft Jt|, and Kiao Chmv J§ j{\.

Aspect and Characteristics. — Shantung is made up of . 1" a mountaip-ous region, which lies to the E. pf the Hwang-ho ^ fpj'^ and of the Grand Canal; 2° of a level region situated- to the W.. It is of all the Provinces, except Kwangtung ^ '^, the one that has the greatest length of coast-line. Its coasts are pro- foundly indented and abound in deep bays and excellent li^irpours.^ To the W., its great plain differs but little in aspect from that of Chihli ]|[ ff, while to the E., numerous rivers rise in all its mountains and hills. Towards the E., the Province is rich in coal and metals; to the W., cereals and fruit abound. It enjoys ■inoreover a very mild climate, because of its proximity to the, sea. The Grand Canal has hitherto afforded it an easy outlet for its products, but ere long, its railways will still further increase ; its wealth. The historical memory of Confucius (K'ung Futze ^ ; ^ ^) imparts to it also a certain celebrity, as well as the pre' \ sence of the T'ai-shan ^ \i], one of China's five sacred mountains.

Geolosical constitution. — Shantung was foi-mei-ly an island cut off from tlie continent by an arm of tlie Yellow S..a, but iirthe course of time became linked . with the mainland through alluvial deposits. This same alluvium mingled with loess, ;' predominate's in the \V.. In the centre, a large portion of the soil is composed of gneiss, mixed with limestone and 'clay. In the E., gneiss is also found, but mingled to a great- ! fr extent with granite, sand-stone and limestone, while to the N. ^specially, it is veined with basalt and porph^'ry.

Orograpliy. — Adjacent to the Hwang-Jio ^ ■jpj' anid the Grand Caned, a vast plain extends to the N. and to the' S. of these. 2 rivers.

In the centre is an important mountain mass formed by several chains, whence issue in all directions a great number of rivers. The principal peak is the T'ai-shan ^ llj, which attains an altitude of 5,060 feet,

To the Bast of Jiiao Chow ^ ^ Bay is another mass, for-1 med by several chains, running N.E. to S. W. and of which the ; highest, called the fMO-sIian ^ [Ij, rises to 3,700 feet. A' third chain exists to the S. E. of Chefoo ^ ^. It is a spur of the K'tienfun ^ -J^ (ij range, and is only 2,940 feet in height.

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG.

81

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SHANTUNG Oj ^ according to Richthofen.

82 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Oliinate. — The climate, milder in tlie S. is in general very healthy. The N.W. monsoon is keenly felt on the Northern coast, and the S. E. monsoon on the Southern coast. The rainy season commences in July and August, and the snow which falls in abundance during Winter, disappears very quickly. In July.fogs are frequent upon the coasts. At Chefoo there is an average rainfall of 24,4 inches, and 15,6 inches at Ts'ingtao. In Winter, the rocks on the Northern seacoast are at times covered with ice. This arises from the waves breaking on the shore,and the ice may last for several weeks.

Hydrography. — To the W. are long rivers confined to the plain and running through the lowlands. The principal one is the Hwang-ho ^ }pj, which runs from S.W. to N.B. , and crosses the Grand Canal (its bed is then 16 feet above the level of the Oanal). The Hwang-ho being far higher than the neigh- bouring country, is maintained within its bed by embankments. These sometimes give way and thus cause dreadful inunda- tions. It is navigable only during the last 25 miles of its course. (&ee Section I. Oh. I. p. 27). — Several other streams are also navigable, especially the T'uhairho ^ ,^ Jpfi which runs to the N, in a parallel direction with the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf. Tsinan Fu ^ p^ ^ is connected with the sea by a navigtMe canal, which in the last part of its course, follows the bed of the Siaots'ing-h^ /J> ^ }pf . — Nearly all the rivers, which run through the mountainous part, bear the aspect of torrents, and none of them have any real importance.

In the S., 2 large rivers flow into the Ortaid Canal : the I-ho f/f JflJ and the Tawen-ho :fc -{^C fpf'

At the Western extremity, but terminating at the Grand

Oanal, is the Wei-ho ^ ^, navigable throughout the greater

part of its course, as we have stated when describing Honan }pf ^.

The Grand Canal or Tun-ho (^ fpj transport river), traverses

the whole Western and South-Western part, and runs through

several lakes. Its highest point is at its junction with the Tawen-

- ho ^ fi M (see Section V. Oh. VI. Means of Oommunication).

The Province has several lakes, the most celebrated of which

are : the Ts'ing-shui ^ ^Jc lake, to the N. of Ts'ingchow Fu }f|

jHI /jj ; — the Peh-meh -g" ^ lake, to the N. W. of Kiao Chow

JP iHI bay; — the Ohaoyang Hg ^ and Wei-shan ^ jjj lakes,

along the Grand Oanal, as it leaves Shantung jl]3*.

CHAPTER IV. SHANTDN&. 83

Faimn and Flora.— Tlie fauna and flora are those of the Northern Region. Shan- tung abounds also in ■nild boars, wolves, foxes, badgers, partridRes, quails and snipe.

The principal trees met mth are : the pine, oak and poplar; willows and the cypress-tree are also very plentiful.

Agricnltnral Products.— These are abundant in the great Western Plain, and consist principally of millet, corn, barley, sorghum, maize, peas, cotton, hemp and the opium poppy. Rice grows only in the extreme S.

Numerous fruit-trees give a plentiful crop of pears, apples, peaches, apricots, plums, grapes and jujubes.

Shantung [JQ ^ furnishes also a vast quantity of silk, both common and wild, (the woven stuff is called pongee), the latter being produced by a silkworm that feeds on oak-leaves.

The country possesses besides, good strong mules as well as horses, oxen and goats in great number. The camel is found only in the Western part.

Various kinds of good fish are caught on the coasts and rivers, such as the sole, cod and mackerel... also crabs, shrimps, oysters and mussels.

Mineral Wealth. — The principal mineral wealth of the Province is found in the centre. Coalfields exist in 3 places : at Wei hsien 3^ jg, Pushan hsien ^ [Ij f^, to the S. W. of Ts'ing- chow Fu ^ ^ ^, and at Ichow F\i ^ j^ )^. — Iron, copper, argentiferous lead-ore. gold, diamonds, gypsum, clay and sand- stone are found, as well as building stone in great abundance.

Population. — The population is very crowded in the plain, but much less in the mountain districts, except near the large centres.

The people of Shantung are a vigorous and sturdy race but rather pugnacious. In the neighbourhood of Tengchow Fu are found some 200,000 immigrants from Hu- peh, who are much more militant and less religious than the natives of the Province. They entered the counti'v, and settled down there about the middle of the XIV*'' cen- tury A. D.

Langaage. — There is nothing deserving any particular mention. Mandarin is spoken, but with the rude accent of the North.

Cities and Principal Centres. — TSZNAN FU ^ij^^, 4 miles to the South of the Hwang-ho.

Population, 100,000 inhabitants. The Governor of Shantung llj * resides there. The -vvalls enclose a very large space,

84

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Tsinan Pu was formerly famous for its silks and its imitation precious stones. Nowadays it is the great commercial centre of all Western Shantung, a vast trading mart, but not a manufac- turing centre. The city owes much to its late Governors. At the present day it has a university, a military school and a well- organized police force. A highway connects it with the Hwang- ho ^ }pf , which flows at a distance of nearly 4 miles to the N.

Alon^ the Grand Canal :

IdnWinff Chow gjl j|| jHI- — Population, 48,000 inhabitants. Formerly a very considerable town on account of its trade and its extensive warehouses, but it has much declined since it was taken by the T'aip'ings yJc ^ in 1855. Its manufacture of bricks however gives it even nowadays some importance.

Tsining Chow T^^ )^. — Population, 150,000 inhabitants. One of the most populous cities of Shantung ]\\ ^, formerly a large trading centre, now an industrial city, where copper, iron and bamboo articles are manufactured. The town exports a vast quantity of salt provisions.

2'o l/te North:

Ttfim/gchmv Fu ^ ^J^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. A town destitute of industry and commerce, but to which the coal-mines in its vicinity and the passage of the railway impart some activity. Not far from it is Folishan /isien i$ lU H^! which supplies excellent coal, and manufactures pottery, glass, oil and bricks.

Cheiu-Ufun ^ /f^f", depending on Ch'angshan hsien g ]\\ (||, is a great distributing centre whence the silk manufactured in the Province is exported.

Laichow Fu ^ ;H1 M- — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. A town deriving importance from its position. It is famous for its marble quarries and its soapstone.

TSngehow J% ® jHI ^- — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It occupies a fine position on the coast, and was formerly a great commercial city.

Chefoo ^ ^ or Tenfai jtS $• — Population, 82,000 in-

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG.

85

habitants. An important commercial port open to foreign trade.

Weihaitvei^^^. — An excellent harbour and anchorage, leased to Great Britain in 1899, and now used as a large supply station and sanatorium. The town is governed by Chinese officials under the direction of a British Commissioner.

To the S. :

Ttfinfftao ^ S( . — Village situated upon Kino Chmv 0 ^ Bay. Leased to Germany in 1898 for 99 years, and vigorously developed into a great trading and promising port. It is 300 miles North of Shanghai.

PORT OF TS'INGTAO ^ %. To the N. of T^ingtao :

Wei hMen J^ f|. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A large town situated near the great commercial highway of that

86 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

region and monopolizing all business. The new railway passes close by, and affords easy transport for the coal which lies in abundance to the S.E. of the city. It is a great mart for goods, such as cotton, tobacco and coal. Wei hsien is the great com- mercial centre in Shantung for the sale of straw-braid.

Industry and Commerce. — A certain number of cities are engaged in industrial pursuits. We have already mentioned several. At Pohshan hsien -(if ilj J|^,in the prefecture of Ts'ing- chow Pu ^ j|t| )^, clay is utilized in making pottery renowned throughout all Northern China. Close to this, a special kind of sand-stone is employed in the manufacture of enamel cloi- sonne. ■ In other places, stone and marble quarries abound, while gypsum and asbestos are also extracted.

Commerce is principally carried on through the treaty-ports and the Grand Canal, T'ientsin 5i W ^^^ Shanghai _t ^ being the great distributing centres. The chief eacports are : fruit, pottery, bricks, beancake (used for manure) and straw-braid. The imports consist of fabrics, rice and petroleum.

Klgtaways of Communication. — We have spoken of the navigable waterways. Further